^."^   Presented  by  - '- 

THE FRANKj< .  NEWYORKUSA 


';ht- n  mCft.l^nft  FRiNK  MILLEsR  COMPANY  HEW  YORK  . 


erownPi^ssiivg 


PREPARED  BY 
NEW  YORK, 


jNF.wa 


/        AN    INVALUABLE    PREPARATION    FOR    RESTORING    LADIES' 
AND  CHILDREN'S  BOOTS,  SHOES,    RUBBERS,  TRAVELING  BAGS, 
AND  ALL  BLACK  LEATHER  GOODS  THAT  ARE  SOILED  OR   WORN, 
TO  THEIR  ORIGINAL  BEAUTY  AND  FINISH.      BE  SURE  AND  ASK  FOR 

FRANK    MILLER'S 


HORSE  FEEDING. 


A    Book   of   Information    and    Suggestion    Gathered 

from    the   Reports   of  Experiment   Stations ^ 

Other    Official    Publications,     and 

Practical  Authorities  07i  the 

Care  of  the  Horse^ 


By  ROBERT  LUCE. 


Published  by 

THE    FRANK    MIIvI^ER    COMPANY, 

349  &  351  West  26th  Street, 

Nkw  York. 


COPYRIGHTED,  1900, 

BY 
the;    frank    MII^I^ER    COMPANY,    Np;W  YORK. 


OFFICE    AND    FACTORY 

349  &  351  West  26th  Street 

NEW  YORK,   U.  S.   A. 


Off»ce  and  Factory 
a49&  351  West  26tb  Street, 

New  York   U.  S.  A. 


European  Office, 
Tower  Chambers,  Moorgate, 

London    Eng. 


T^HE  MATERIAL  for  this  book  has  been  gathered 
from  many  sources,  and  as  the  author  claims  for 
its  statements  little  originality,  it  has  been  deemed 
superfluous  in  most  cases  to  designate  the  authority 
quoted.  It  is  hoped  that  few  errors  have  crept  into 
the  compilation,  and  that  the  putting  of  this  material 
into  compact  and  well-ordered  shape  will  prove  ser- 
viceable to  many  owners  of  horses. 

Single  Copies  mailed  from  New  York  office  on 
receipt  of  six  cents,  or  from  London  office  on  receipt 
of  three  pence  in  postage  stamps. 


THE  FRANK  MILLER  COMPANY, 


349  (  SSI  West  26th  St..  New  Vork. 


FRANK    MILLER'S 

Gem  Combination. 

For   Russet  or   Light 
Colored  Shoes. 

The  cleaner  removes  all  stains, 

and  the  Polisih  gives  a   bright 

and  durable  gloss. 

Both  are  packed 

together    in     a 

handsome    car-' 

ton. 


FRANK   MILLER'S 

Russet    Polish. 

For  polishing  Russet  Leather  Shoes 
or  any  article  made  from  Russian  or 
Tan  leather. 


FRANK   MILLER'S 

Patent   Leather  Polish. 

A  perfect  article  for  cleaning  and 
restoring  Patent  Leather  Shoes.     Re- 
moves all  dirt  and  stains,  and  imparts 
a  finish  which  is  equal  to  new. 
Equally  valuable  for  use  on  any  article  of  Patent  or  Enam- 
eled Leather. 


FRANK   MILLER'S 

Peerless  Shoe  Blacking. 

Quickly  ^ves  a  durable  jet-black  gloss. 
Will  not  injure  the  finest  leather,  and  is 
highly  recommended. 


Ask   Your   Dealer   for   FRANK    MILLER'S. 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  I.  Page 

The  Functions  and  Composition  of  Food ,.:.  7 

CHAPTER  ir. 
The  Various  Foods 21 

CHAPTER  III. 
The  Preparation  of  Food 71 

CHAPTFR  IV. 
Feeding  and  Rations 76 

CHAPTER  V. 
The  Art  of  Feeding 89 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Watering 100 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Feeding  Stallions 105 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Feeding  Brood  Mares 108 

CHAPTER  IX. 
C;olt  Feeding 110 

CHAPTER  X. 
Feeding  Sick  Horses 124 


Bengal  Bluing 


?<^' 


s^;!:!^r.n  laundry  blue  .u,^.  i 


STRONGEST! 
CLEANEST ! 
CHEAPEST! 


NO  ACIDS. 

NO  STREAKING, 


QUADRUPLE 

STRENGTH. 


Be  sure  and  get 

the  Genuine 

BENGAL  BLUING. 


BEWARE   OP  COUNTERFEITS. 


ASK   YOUR   GROCER    FOR    IT. 


MANUFACTURED    BY 

THE  FRANK  MILLER  COMPANY 

349  &  351  West  26th  Street, 
NEW    YORK. 


fI®RgE  FIEEDINS. 


CHAPTER   1. 

THE     FUNCTIONS     AND     COMPOSITION     OF    FOOD. 

Food  has  two  functions,  one  the  furnishing  of  material,  the 
other  the  furnishing  of  power.  In  its  first  capacity  it  makes 
and  maintains  the  body ;  in  the  second,  it  enables  the  body  to 
live  and  work.    It  is  partly  staple,  partly  fuel. 

These  functions,  however,  are  not  clearly  distinct.  They 
overlap,  since  some  of  the  materials  of  the  body  may  in  the  end 
become  fuel.  The  bear  goes  into  winter  quarters  fat:  he 
comes  out  lean.  He  has  lived  on  his  own  tissues  during  his 
long  sleep.  Take  a  plump  horse,  feed  him  light,  work  him 
hard,  and  he  gets  thin.  Why?  The  fuel  in  his  food  has  been 
less  than  the  work  required,  and  he  has  made  up  the  lack  by 
consuming  part  of  himself. 

Only  the  bones  are  not  consumed,  either  as  waste  or  fuel,  to 
any  extent  worth  considering.  They  therefore  affect  the  feed- 
ing problem  only  during  the  growth  of  the  young  animal. 
Likewise  the  supply  of  material  for  the  cartilages,  skin  and  hair 
is  of  relatively  small  importance.  What  chiefly  concerns  us  is 
the  supply  of  those  materials  that  make  up  the  working  part  of 
the  body,  the  blood,  the  muscles,  and  the  tendons,  together 
with  the  body's  own  fuel  supply,  the  fat. 

On  chemical  examination  it  has  been  found  that  these  have 
for  their  chief  constituent  water,  which,  like  the  minerals  of 


8  HORSE    FEEDING. 

the  bones,  is  so  nearly  universal  in  all  foods  that  no  account  is 
taken  of  its  presence  in  them,  and  therefore  it  may  be  left  for 
independent  consideration  when  we  take  up  the  matter  of 
drinking. 

Next  of  the  chemical  constituents  in  quantity,  and  in  reality 
the  most  to  be  considered,  are  nitrogen  and  carbon.  Nitrogen 
is  chiefly  a  tissue  maker ;  carbon,  a  heat  maker,  a  life  sustainer, 
a  fuel  supply.  Nutritive  food  is  that  which  contains  these  in- 
gredients in  such  shape  that  they  can  be  assimilated  by  the 
body,  transformed  into  it,  or  consumed  by  it. 

Distinguish  clearly  between  growth  and  nutrition.  In  growth 
proper  no  change  of  form  or  composition  takes  place :  parts 
merely  increase  in  weight,  and  usually  in  size ;  and  if  they 
obtain  more  power,  it  is  only  more  power  of  the  same  kind  they 
before  enjoyed.  Nutrition,  on  the  other  hand,  maintains  parts 
that  are  constantly  changing,  preserves  in  them  the  same  gen- 
eral form,  size  and  characteristics  they  have  already  attained, 
though  modifying  them  somewhat  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  nutrition  itself. 

The  nutritive  parts  of  food,  technically  known  as  its  nutri- 
ents, in  reality  furnish  both  growth  and  nutrition,  but  it  is  well 
to  remember  that  these  are  separate  functions.  Such  a  dis- 
crimination, for  instance,  has  its  use  in  impressing  the  fact 
that  during  the  period  of  growth  the  nitrogen  elements  of  food 
are  relatively  more  important  thanthe  carbon  elements.  Later 
on  when  nutrition  proper  takes  the  chief  place,  when  work  is 
to  be  done  and  life  is  to  be  sustained  merely  that  work  may  be 
done,  the  fuel  value  of  the  carbon  elements  assumes  far  greater 
prominence. 

Upon  classifying  the  nutritive  elements  of  food,  the  nutri- 
ents, we  find  that  only  a  part  contain  nitrogen.  They  have  a 
distinctive  name,  or  rather  two  names  used  interchangeably, 
proteins  and  albuminoids ,  meaning  much  the  same  thing.  The 
numerous  substances  grouped  under  these  names  are  alike  in 
being  composed  of  hydrogen,  oxogen,  nitrogen,  carbon,  and 
sulphur.  What  is  commonly  known  as  albumen  is  a  typical 
example.  It  is  most  commonly  thought  of  as  the  chief  ingre- 
dient in  the  white  of  an  egg,  but  it  is  found  in  vegetable  sub- 
stances as  well  as  in  animal,  and  in  relation  to  horse  feeding  it 


THE  FUNCTIONS  AND    COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  9 

is  more  important  to  know  that  it  is  the  edible  or  useful  part  of 
many  seeds,  notably  those  that  go  under  the  American  name  of 
grain  and  the  English  name  of  corn^  i.  e.  wheat,  maize,  oats, 
rye,  barley,  etc.  In  these  cereals  it  is  mealy  or  farinaceous. 
When  found  in  peas,  beans,  and  similar  plants  it  is  known  as 
legumen.  The  albuminoid  in  milk  is  known  as  casein^  and  is 
derived  from  the  albumenoid  or  protein  of  the  food,  and  in  its 
turn  becomes  food. 

Washed  lean  meat  is  another  example  of  protein,  and  this 
suggests  why  as  a  food  ingredient  it  so  important,  for  it  makes 
up  the  greater  part  of  the  flesh  of  the  horse,  or  for  that  matter 
of  any  animal.  Likewise  the  organic  part  of  the  bones,  the  lig- 
aments and  muscles  that  bind  together  and  move  the  bones,  the 
skin,  the  internal  organs,  the  blood,  brain  and  nerves,  in  short, 
all  the  working  machinery  of  the  body  is  composed  chiefly  of 
protein. 

Be  it  remembered,  too,  that  as  the  various  parts  of  the  body 
are  consumed  and  thrown  off  with  the  undigested  part  of  the 
food  as  excreta,  manure,  the  most  important  element  therein 
is  again  the  protein,  or  rather  its  nitrogen  constituent. 

Besides  the  albuminoids  there  are  present  in  plants  certain 
other  compounds  containing  nitrogen.  These  are  known  as 
amines,  amides  and  amido-acids.  They  doubtless  have  a  dif- 
ferent feeding  value  from  the  real  albuminoids,  but  as  the 
amount  of  these  substances  is  usually  small  in  the  common 
feeding  stuffs,  it  has  been  customary  to  disregard  these  and  to 
calculate  all  the  nitrogen  present  as  albuminoids.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  these  minor  nitrogen  compounds  might  well  be 
termed  the  ^''portable form  "  of  the  albuminoids,  since  the  albu- 
minoids in  the  seed  or  plant  are  converted  into  this  form  to  be 
transported  to  other  parts  of  the  plant  for  re-deposition.  In 
this  respect  they  are  analagous  to  the  peptones^  the  soluble  form 
into  which  the  nitrogenous  portion  of  the  food  is  changed  in 
the  stomach  of  the  animal,  and  in  which  form  it  can  be  taken 
into  the  circulation  for  the  rebuilding  of  tissue,  and  its  other 
functions. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  albuminoids  all  contain  about  16 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  As  16x8.25  =  100,  it  is  customary  to 
determine  the  amount  of  albuminoids  or  protein  in  any  given 


10  HORSE    FEEDING. 

quantity  of  food,  by  ascertaining  through  chemical  analysis 
the  amount  of  nitrogen  and  multiplying  it  by  6.25. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  albuminoids  comes  the  group  of 
nutrients  composed  of  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  carbon.  These 
are  the  fuel  ingredients,  and  are  either  consumed  directly  or 
stored  as  fat  to  be  burned  as  occasion  demands.  They  contain 
starch,  sugar,  gums,  fats  or  oils,  and  woody  fibre  or  cellulose. 
As  a  group  they  are  subdivided  into  carbohydrates,  fats,  and 
crude  fibres. 

The  carbohydrates  comprise  chiefly  the  starches,  sugars  and 
gums.  They  are  frequently  classed  to;j:ether  under  the  name 
of  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  sometimes  as  non-nitrogenous  matter. 
Its  percentage  in  any  given  food  is  found  by  subtracting  the 
sum  of  the  ash,  fibre,  fat.  and  protein  from  100. 

The  fats  or  oils  of  organic  substances  are  separated  in  analy- 
sis by  the  use  of  ether  as  a  solvent.  Since  in  the  analysis  of 
vegetable  foods  this  ether  also  removes  some  of  the  coloring 
matter  of  the  plant,  and  from  some  substances  like  ensilage, 
some  organic  acids,  the  whole  is  generally  designated  as  crude 
fat  or  simply  as  ether  extract.  The  fats  are  considered  to  have 
two  and  one-half  times  the  feeding  value  of  the  substances 
contained  in  the  starch,  sugar,  and  gum  group,  i.  e.  the  carbo- 
hydrates. Cotton  seed  oil,  linseed  oil,  corn  oil,  etc.,  are  com- 
mon examples.  Crude  Hbre  is  the  woody  portion  of  vegetable 
matter  which  is  unacted  upon  by  dilute  acids  or  alkalies. 
Crude  fibre  has  little  or  no  direct  nutritive  value  to  the  animal. 
Paper  is  a  good  illustration  of  almost  pure  fibre. 

Besides  the  substances  mentioned,  food  is  found  on  analysis 
to  contain  but  one  other  group  of  substances,  the  inorganic  or 
mineral,  known  as  the  ash.  This  is  the  part  that  remains  un- 
consumed  by  burning.  Its  ingredients  form  the  solid  matter 
of  the  animal  frame-work,  bones,  and  occur,  also,  in  small 
quantities  in  the  muscles,  blood,  etc.  Lime,. phosphoric  acid, 
potash,  etc.,  constitute  the  mineral  elements  of  the  ash.  They 
are  found  in  all  the  fodders  commonly  used,  and  are  generally 
held  to  be  in  all  in  sufficient  quantity,  except  as  to  the  matter 
of  ordinary  salt.  Yet  some  hold  that  even  their  relative  abun- 
dance is  a  matter  worth  consideration  in  feeding.  To  illustrate 
this  it  is  cited  that  a  goat  fed  at  Proskau  on  being  deprived  of 


THE   FUNCTIONS   AND    COMPOSITION    OF   FOOD.  11 

lime  and  phosphoric  acid  ia  its  food  died  after  fifteen  days. 
Some  pigeons  were  fed  by  Liebeg  on  wheat  exclusively  for 
two  years,  with  the  result  that  the  skeleton  disappeared,  owing 
without  doubt,  to  the  very  small  amount  of  lime  and  magnesia 
salts  furnished  by  this  grain.  The  same  point  is  brought  to 
bear  in  argument  that  oats  are  the  best  grain  for  young  stock, 
inasmuch  as  they  contain  about  eight  times  as  much  of  the 
salts  of  lime  and  magnesia  as  wheat  contains,  five  times  as  much 
as  rye  contains,  and  twice  as  much  as  barley.  Hence  it  is 
argued  that  to  the  part  played  by  oats  in  the  formation  of  the 
skeleton,  is  due  the  fact  that  young  thoroughbreds  can  be  put 
to  severe  exercise  almost  before  they  mature.  However,  most 
investigators  of  the  subject  of  feeding  have  not  thought  it 
necessary  to  attach  much  importance  to  the  mineral  constitu- 
ents of  food. 

It  is  not  enough  to  determine  the  proportion  of  nutrients  in 
food.  Beyond  this,  and  of  nearly  equal  importance,  is  the  de- 
termination of  how  large  a  proportion  of  them  the  animal  can 
utilize.  In  other  words,  what  the  animal  digests  must  be  con- 
sidered as  well  as  what  he  eats. 

The  digestible  percentage  of  food  is  termed  the  digestion  co- 
efflcient.  To  illustrate,  take  the  following  analysis  of  clover 
hay:  — 

Analysis  Digestion 

^  per  cent.  co-efficient. 

Water 15.35 

Ash 5.50 

Albuminoids 12.05  63 

Crude  fiber 25.99      •  49 

Carbo-hydrates 37.63  71 

Fat 3.48  60 

The  first  column  shows  us  that  this  clover  hay  contained 
15.35  per  cent,  of  water,  12.05  per  cent,  of  albuminoids,  etc. ;  or 
in  other  words,  100  pounds  of  this  hay  had  a  little  more  than 
15  pounds  of  water,  something  over  12  pounds  of  albuminoids 
(nitrogenous  matter),  and  so  on  as  to  the  other  constituents. 
In  the  second  column  is  shown  what  part  of  these  albuminoids, 
etc.,  the  animals  can  take  out  of  the  hay  to  be  made  into  flesh, 


12  HORSE  FEEDING. 

blood,  and  heat  to  keep  the  body  warm,  sustain  life,  etc.,  etc. 
Now  if  we  multiply  the  figures  in  the  first  column  by  those  in 
the  second,  we  shall  see  at  once  how  much  of  the  albuminoids, 
fat,  and  carbohydrates  the  animal  can  use. 

Suppose  the  horse-owner  finds  his  horse  is  eating  ten  pounds 
of  this  hay  a  day  and  he  wants  to  khow  how  much  of  each  of 
these  several  ingredients  is  being  eaten.  He  will  simply  mul- 
tiply the  figures  in  the  column  of  analysis  by  ten  and  find  at 
once  the  amount  as  follows : — 

Per  cent.  Hay  eaten.      Pounds  of  each 

pounds.  eaten. 

Water 15.35      x  10  1.53 

Ash 5.50     X  10  .55 

Albuminoids 12.05      x  10  1.20                ' 

Crude  fiber 25.99     x  10  2.59 

Carbohydrates 37.63     x  10  3.76 

Fat ....3.48      X  10  .35 

That  is,  the  ten  pounds  of  hay  contained  a  little  more  than 
a  pound  and  a  half  of  water,  a  little  more  than  two  and  a  half 
pounds  of  crude  fiber,  etc.  If  we  want  to  know  how  much  of 
these  the  horse  can  use,  we  have  only  to  multiply  these  last 
figures  once  more,  by  the  figures  given  in  the  column  of  di- 
gestion coeflicients,  thus :  — 

Pounds  Per  cent.  Pounds  digested 

eaten.  digested  by  the  animal. 

Albuminoids.. 1.20       x  63  0.75 

Crude  fiber 2.56      x  49  1.25 

Carbohydrates 3.76      x  71  2.68 

Fat 0.35      X  60  0.21 


In  the  last  column  we  see  how  much  of  the  ten  pounds  of 
clover  hay  the  horse  can  use :  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of 
albuminoids;  one  and  one-quarter  pounds  of  crude  fiber; 
about  two  and  two-thirds  pounds  of  carbohydrates;  and 
nearly  one-quarter  pound  of  fat.  In  just  the  same  manner 
the  horse-owner  can  work  out  the  amounts  digested  with 
other  feeds. 

If  we  want  to  know  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  fodder,  it  can 
now  be  easily  found.    First,  fat  is  said  to  be  worth  two  and  a 


THE  FUNCTIONS  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD.  13 

half  times  as  much  for  feeding  as  the  starchy  portions  of  the 
food.  So  we  multiply  the  fat  by  this  number,  0.21x23^  = 
0.52  pounds.  Add  together  now  this  fat,  the  crude  fiber  and 
the  carbohydrates,  0.52  +  1-25  +  2.68  =  4.45.  Divide  this  last 
bv  the  amount  of  albuminoids,  4.45  -r-  0.75  =5.93;  that  is, 
the  nutritive  ratio  is  1 :  5.93.  By  this  we  mean  that  for  every 
pound  of  albuminoids  there  are  five  and  ninety-three  hundredths 
times  as  much  other  matter  of  the  same  feeding  value  as 
starch,  —  that  is,  nearly  six  times  as  much  carbonaceous  as 
nitrogenous  matter. 

After  determining  the  relative  proportions  of  the  nutrients 
in  food,  and  their  respective  digestion  values,  it  is  next  in 
order  to  determine  what  may  be  called  their  energy  value. 
This,  however  concerns  only  the  use  of  food  for  fuel.  No  way 
has  yet  been  devised  to  measure  accurately  its  utility  in  build- 
ing up  th«  body  and  repairing  its  wastes,  but  as  fuel  it  can  be 
studied  with  almost  the  exactness  of  the  mechanical  engineer 
in  his  determination  of  the  energy  developed  by  burning  coal 
under  a  boiler. 

This  has  come  to  pass  only  within  a  few  years,  since  the  in- 
vestigators began  experiments  with  animals  in  the  respiration 
apparatus,  to  learn  the  proportions  in  which  the  several  classes 
of  nutrients  do  work  in  serving  as  fuel  in  the  body.  At  the 
same  time  time  experiments  have  been  made  with  the  calori 
meter  to  determine  the  heats  of  combustion  of  the  same  ma- 
terial. The  results  obtained  with  the  respiration  apparatus  and 
with  the  calorimeter  have  agreed  very  closely.  That  is  to  say, 
in  supplying  the  body  with  fuel,  the  protein,  fat,  and  carbohy- 
drates of  the  food  have  been  found  to  replace  each  other  in 
almost  exact  proportion  to  their  heats  of  combustion. 

The  unit  commonly  used  is  the  Calorie,  the  amount  of  heat 
that  would  raise  the  temperature  of  a  kilogram  of  water  one 
degree  centigrade  (or  a  pound  of  water  four  degrees  Fahren- 
heit). The  same  word,  calorie,  but  spelled  with  a  small  c,  is 
used  to  designate  the  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of 
a  gram  of  water  a  degree.  Oae  Calorie  is  thus  equal  to  1,000 
calories.  Instead  of  this  unit  of  heat  we  may  use  a  unit  of 
mechanical  energy,  for  instance  the  foot-ton,  which  is  the 
force  that  would  lift  one  ton  one  foot.      One  Calorie  corres- 


14  HORSE   FEEDING. 

ponds  very  nearly  to  1.53  foot-tons. 

Taking  ordinary  food  materials  as  they  come,  the  folllowing 
general  estimate  has  been  made  for  tne  average  amount  of 
energy  in  one  gram  of  each  of  the  classes  of  nutrients : 

Potential  Energy  in  Nutrients  of  Food. 

Calories  Foot-tons. 

In  one  gram  of  protein 4.1  6.3 

In  one  gram  of  fats 9.3  14.2 

In  one  gram  of  carbohydrates 4.1  6.3 

These  figures  mean  that  when  a  gram  of  fat,  be  it  the  fat  of 
the  food  or  body-fat,  is  consumed  in  the  body,  it  will,  if  its  po- 
tential energy  be  all  transformed  into  heiUt,  yield  enough  to 
warm  9.3  kilograms  of  water  one  degree  of  the  centigrade  ther- 
mometer, or  if  it  be  transformed  into  mechanical  energy  such 
as  the  steam-engine  or  the  muscles  use  to  do  their  work,  it  will 
furnish  as  much  as  would  raise  one  ton  14.2  feet  or  14.2  tons 
one  foot.  A  gram  of  protein  or  carbohydrates  would  yield  a 
little  less  than  half  as  much  energy  as  a  gram  of  fat.  In  other 
words  when  we  compare  the  nutrients  in  respect  to  their  fuel  val- 
ues, their  capacities  for  yielding  heat  and  mechanical  power, 
an  ounce  of  protein  is  just  about  equivalent  to  an  ounce  of 
carbohydrates ;  and  a  little  over  two  ounces  of  either  would 
be  required  to  equal  an  ounce  of  fat.  The  potential  energy  in 
the  ounce  of  protein  or  carbohydrates  would,  if  transformed 
into  heat,  suffice  to  raise  the  temperature  of  113  pounds  of 
water  one  degree  Fahrenheit,  while  an  ounce  of  fat,  if  com- 
pletely burned  in  the  body  or  in  the  calorimeter,  would  yield 
as  much  heat  as  would  warm  over  twice  that  weight  of  water 
one  degree.  It  would  be  wrong  to  assume  that  such  figures  as 
these  are  absolutely  accurate,  but  we  are  doubtless  warranted 
in  using  them  with  the  distinct  nndirstanding  that  they  are 
tentative  and  subject  to  such  revision  as  future  research  shall 
indicate. 

The  application  of  these  figures  to  estimating  the  fuel  values 
of  food  is  simple.  A  gram  of  digestible  protein  or  a  gram  of 
digestible  carbohydrates  is  assumed  to  yield  4.1  and  a  gram  of 
digestible  fat,  9.3  Calories  of  energy.  A  given  weight  of  di- 
gestible fat  is  thus  taken  to  be  equivalent  in  fuel  value  to  2.27 


THE  FUNCTIONS   AND   COMPOSITION   OF  FOOD.  15 

(9.3  4.1  =  2.27)  grams  of  digestible  protein  or  carbo- 
hydrates. 

The  potential  energy  or  fuel  value  of  a  given  quantity  of 
feeding  stuff,  or  of  a  daily  ration,  is  calculated  by  multiplying 
the  number  of  grams  of  digestible  protein  and  of  digestible 
carbohydrates  by  4.1  and  the  number  of  grams  of  digestible  fat 
by  9.3  and  taking  the  sum  of  these  three  products  as  the  num- 
ber of  Calories  of  potential  energy  in  the  materials.  The 
computation  is  made  more  convenient  by  taking  each  per  cent, 
of  each  nutrient  as  equivalent  to  one  hundredth  of  a  pound  of 
that  ingredient  in  a  pound  of  the  feeding  stuff  and  multiplying 
by  the  number  of  Calories  in  .01  pound.  As  .01  pound  equals 
4.536  grams,  .01  of  a  pound  of  protein  or  carbohydrates  would 
thus  be  assumed  to  yield  (4.536x4.1  )  18.6,  and  each  .01  pound 
of  fats  42.2  Calories. 

Applying  this  method  of  calculation  to  the  figures  given  by 
the  German  (Wolff's)  standard  for  feeding  moderately  worked 
horses  of  1,000  lbs.  weight,  under  which  the  daily  ration  would 
contain  1.7  pounds  of  digestible  protein,  10.4  pounds  of  digest- 
ible carbohydrates,  and  0  6  pounds  of  fats,  we  find  that  the 
protein  will  yield  3,162  Calories,  the  carbohydrates  19,344,  and 
the  fat  2,532,  a  total  of  25,038  Calories. 

Very  likely  further  experiments  may  modify  the  figures  now 
used  in  these  estimates,  but  if  the  general  theory  is  correct  one 
important  point  at  least  i  s  established,  viz.  that  in  the  matter 
of  fuel  the  protein,  fats  and  carbohydrates  are  interchangeable. 
In  other  words,  different  foods  may  have  the  same  fuel  value 
though  varying  much  in  the  relative  proportions  contained  of 
these  ingredients.  Or  two  foods  with  the  same  amount  of  pro- 
tein and  carbohydrates  will  vary  much  in  fuel  value  if  their  fat 
constituents  vary  much.  Or  two  foods  alike  in  fat  and  pro- 
tein, but  differing  in  carbohydrates,  will  have  a  correspondingly 
different  fuel  value. 

But  though  the  proportions  of  the  ingredients  may  vary  and 
yet  pro(?uce  similar  results,  it  does  not  follow  that  there  is  no 
limit  to  the  variance  possible.  It  might  be  inferred  that  a  diet 
all  fat,  or  all  carbohydrates,  or  all  protein  could  be  success- 
fully used,  but  that  is  not  the  case.  For  example,  a  hungering 
animal  has  been  found  to  consume  its  own  flesh  and  fat,  the 


16  HORSE.  FEEDING. 

nitrogen  of  the  former  re-appearing  almost  wholly  in  the  urine, 
and  the  fat  in  the  exhalations  from  the  lungs  as  carbonic  acid 
gas  and  water.  If  now  a  moderate  amount  of  protein  is  fed, 
the  rate  of  loss  of  flesh  is  not  materially  lessened ;  moreover, 
the  amount  of  excreted  nitrogen  in  the  urine  is  not  only  equal 
to  that  preyiously  found,  but  is  increased  by  nearly  the  whole 
of  that  in  the  added  protein.  Only  by  feeding  protein  in  enormous 
quantities  can  this  loss  of  flesh  be  even  temporarily  prevented. 

If  under  like  conditions  we  try  to  feed  fat  alone,  it  neither 
prevents  nor  lessons  the  loss  of  flesh,  though  the  total  amount 
of  fat  in  the  body  may  be  thereby  increased.  If  long  enough 
continued,  the  animal  dies.  In  a  similar  case  by  feeding  exclu- 
sively carbohydrates,  the  loss  of  flesh  is  lessened,  but  cannot 
be  entirely  prevented.  The  carbohydrates  serve,  however,  to 
protect  the  fat  of  the  body  by  suffering  oxidization  in  its  stead. 
By  combining  fat  and  carbohydrates  in  such  a  case  the  loss  of 
flesh  still  continues.  In  fact  experiment  has  conclusively 
proved  that  only  by  feeding  a  combination  of  protein,  fat,  and 
carbohydrates  can  an  animal  be  kept  for  any  length  of  time 
without  a  loss  of  flesh  or  health. 

Futhermore  it  must  be  remembered  that  circumstances  may 
vary  somewhat  the  effect  of  all  these  theories  in  their  applica- 
tion. For  instance,  it  has  been  found  that  the  addition  of 
easily  digestible  food  like  potatoes  and  roots  to  other  fodders 
lowers  the  digestibility  of  the  constituents  of  the  latter.  The 
digestibility  is  not  appreciably  lowered,  however,  if  the  amount 
of  dry  matter  of  the  roots,  etc.,  does  not  exceed  12  per  cent,  of 
the  whole  amount.  In  case  it  amounts  to  quarter  of  the  whole 
amount,  the  digestibility  of  the  protein,  which  is  most  seriously 
affected,  is  lowered  one-tenth ;  if  increased  to  two-thirds  of  the 
total  dry  matter,  the  digestibility  of  the  protein  is  lowered 
one-fourth. 

Again,  German  investigators  have  tested  the  digestibility  of 
diff"erent  fodders  with  the  various  classes  of  animals,  and  for 
horses,  cows,  and  swine,  for  example,  wide  variations  have 
been  found. 

Further  impediments  are  thrown  in  the  way  of  exact  meas- 
urement and  accurate  deduction  by  the  fact  tl^at  animals  at 
work  exhale  more  carbonic  acid  gas  and  water  than  when  at 


THE  FUNCTIONS   AND   COMPOSITION   OF  FOOD.  17 

rest ;  they  exhale  less  of  each  in  the  dark  than  in  the  light ;  an 
exposure  to  low  temperature  has  the  same  effect  as  labor ;  the 
radiation  of  heat  from  the  animal  varies  as  the  surface,  and 
hence  proportionately  more  food  is  required  for  four  animals 
weighing  together  one  ton  than  for  but  two  of  the  same  total 
weight ;  excessive  consumption  of  water  leads  to  a  greater  ex- 
cretion of  nitrogen  and  consequent  waste,  and  too  much  salt 
leads  to  the  same  result. 

These  things  are  cited  to  show  that  feeding  is  by  no  means 
an  exact  science.  Nevertheless  its  principles  have  been  deter- 
mined with  sufficient  accuracy  to  warrant  their  general  use, 
and  for  all  practical  purposes  it  is  safe  to  apply  them  as  here 
outlined  to  the  questions  in  hand. 

One  omission  will  doubtless  have  been  noticed  in  the  fore- 
going attempt  to  give  a  systematic  method  for  valuing  horse 
foods.  No  standard  has  been  set  for  the  protein  or  albumin- 
oid constituents  in  their  function  of  making  body  material  and 
repairing  wastes,  i.  e.  in  contradistinction  to  their  fuel  func- 
tion. This  omission  has  been  due  to  the  very  nature  of  the 
subject.  Horses  are  not  bred  or  kept  for  the  profit  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  sale  of  their  flesh,  their  hair,  their  hides,  or 
their  milk.  Therefore  the  use  of  food  to  these  ends  is  not  a 
pertinent  matter  in  this  relation,  and  it  is  not  thought  necessary 
to  treat  the  protein  elements  in  the  food  with  scientific  accur- 
acy except  so  far  as  they  are  energy  producers.  In  fact  it  is 
almost  wholly  for  his  energy,  his  work,  that  we  breed  and  feed 
the  horse.  Provided,  then,  his  food  contains  a  reasonable 
amount  of  protein  and  mineral  elements,  it  will  be  satisfactory, 
and  as  ordinary  rations  contain  these,  they  need  be  referred  to 
only  in  a  general  way. 

There  is  another  theoretical  aspect  of  food  value,  however, 
that  should  be  considered  in  detail  before  we  proceed  to  the 
discussion  of  individual  foods.  That  is  its  fertilizing  aspect. 
In  other  words,  the  science  of  feeding  demands  not  only  the 
determination  of  the  value  of  foods  as  foods,  but  also  their 
value  as  manure.  And  that  the  subject  may  not  be  treated  in 
detail  again,  let  us  here,  though  at  the  risk  of  digression,  con* 
sider  the  manure  question  both  theoretically  and  practically. 

To  be  sure,  many  of  the  fourteen  million  horses  in  the  United 


18  HORSE    FEEDING. 

States  are  not  kept  even  secondarily  for  the  value  of  this  bye- 
product,  but  just  as  many,  probably  more,  are  owned  by  people 
to  whom  fertilizing  material  has  a  considerable  cash  value. 
Every  horse  owner  who  cultivates  land  is  concerned  to  see  that 
his  manure  heap  is  as  valuable  as  he  can  make  it.  To  him  the 
question  of  economy  in  horse  feeding  is  not  settled  when  he 
has  learned  the  direct  values  of  various  foods  in  furtiishingj 
horse  material  and  horse  energy.  He  should  go  further  and 
learn  how  much  of  these  values  he  can  utilize  again  as  manure. 

The  importance  of  the  matter  can  be  seen  by  the  considera- 
tion of  a  single  statement,  which  will  surprise  many  readers, 
viz.  that  at  least  one  feeding  material  is  actually  worth  more 
when  transformed  into  manure  than  it  cost  in  the  first  place, 
and  there  are  several  materials  that  go  through,  feed,  and 
maintain  animals,  and  are  then  worth  for  fertilizing  purposes 
more  than  half  what  they  cost  as  food.  As  we  spend  nearly  a 
billion  dollars  a  year  in  maintaining  our  horses  and  mules, 
there  is  an  enormous  money  investment  at  stake  in  this  matter 
of  manure. 

A  great  deal  of  it  is  wasted  through  being  excreted  on  the 
highway,  but  much  more  of  it  goes  into  the  manure  heap. 

Tests  made  at  one  of  the  experiment  stations  with  nine 
horses,  two  of  them  light  driving  horses  and  the  rest  grade 
Percheron  horses  of  from  1200  to  1400  pounds  weight,  showed 
the  average  amount  of  solid  and  liquid  excrement  voided  in  24 
hours  to  be  56  %  pounds.  Upon  analysis  this  was  found  to 
contain  0.51  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  0.21  per  cent,  of  phosphoric 
acid,  and  0.53  per  cent,  of  potash.  At  the  price  of  commercial 
fertilizers  this  percentage  of  nitrogen  in  a  ton  of  manure  was 
worth,  at  17  cts.  a  lb.,  $1.73;  of  phosphoric  acid,  at  7  cts.  a 
lb.,  $0.29 ;  of  potash,  at  4  cts.,  $0.43  ;  a  total  of  $2.45. 

From  75  to  80  per  cent,  of  the  manurial  valne  of  food  is  re- 
covered in  the  manure.  In  other  words,  from  one-fifth  to 
one-quarter  goes  into  the  making  of  tissue,  bone,  etc.,  oris 
expended  as  fuel,  and  the  rest  is  excreted.  Leaving  this  out 
of  account,  for  the  sake  of  exactness,  it  was  found  by  the  New 
York  experimenters  that  the  value  of  the  fertilizing  elements' 
in  12  hays  when  averaged  amounted  to  63  per  cent  of  their 
cost;  of  9  straws,  to  66  per  cent. ;  6  green  foods,  60  per  cent. ; 


THE  FUNCTIONS   AND    COMPOS^TIO^f    OF  FOOD.  19 

5  roots,  30  per  cent. ;  7  grains,  24  per  cent. ;  12  mill  feeds,  53 
per  cent.  Assuming  that  a  quarter  is  lost,  the  conclusion  is 
that  hay  at  $11  a  ton  will  yield  manure  worth  about  $5  ;  grain 
at  $30  a  ton,  manure  worth  $5.40,  and  so  on. 

These  figures  differ  somewhat  from  those  of  Director  H.  P. 
Armsby  of  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station,  who  finds 
even  more  importance  in  the  manure  question..  In  his  report 
for  1890  he  gave  the  following  table  which  shows  the  manurial 
value,  not  of  equal  weights  of  the_ditferent  crops,  but  of  an 
equal  number  of  dollars  worth  at  average  prices  : — 

Manure  Value  of  $10  Worth. 

*        Meadow  hay, $5.10 

Timothy  hay. 5  99 

Hungarian  hay, 6.10 

Clover  hay, 9.07 

Bran, 7.78 

Wheat, 2.58 

Barley 2.96 

Oats, 3.86 

Corn, 3.78 

Cotton-seed  meal, 10.12 

Oil  meal, 7.54 

Potatoes .12 

Milk, 88 

Butter, 01 

Cheese 69 

Skim  milk, 41 

It  is  clear,  then,  that  in  examining  the  various  foods  individu- 
ally it  will  be  worth  while  to  note  tne  manure  value  of  each, 
as  indicated  by  its  nitrogenous  and  mineral  constituents. 

Let  it  be  noticed  in  passing  that  it  pays  to  care  for  th® 
manure  heap.  The  manure  gathered  in  the  New  York  test 
referred  to  above  shrank  after  six  months  exposure  from  529 
pounds  to  372  pounds,  almost  30  per  cent.  Besides  this  there 
was  gain  in  the  percentage  of  water  and  a  loss  in  the  percent- 
age of  valuable  fertilizing  elements.  A  ton  of  manure  worth 
$2.45  when  fresh,  would  nave  been  worth  only  $1.42  after  six 
months  exposure,  a  loss  of  42  per  cent.  Other  tests  were  made, 
the  results  of  the  season's  work  seeming  to  show  that  horse 
manure  thrown  in  a  loose  pile  and  subjected  to  the  action  of 


20  HORSE  FEEDING. 

the  elements  will  lose  nearly  one-half  of  Jts  valuable  fertilizing 
constituents  in  the  course  of  six  months ;  that  mixed  horse 
and  cow  manure  in  a  compact  mass  and  so  placed  that  all  water 
falling  upon  it  quickly  runs  through  and  off  is  subjected  to  a 
considerable,  though  not  so  great  loss ;  and  that  no  appreciable 
loss  takes  place  when  manure  simply  dries. 


THE  VARIOUS  FOODS.  21 


CHAPTER  II. 
The  Various  Foods. 

Proceeding  to  the  separate  examination  of  the  foods  custom- 
arily and  occasionally  given  to  horses,  we  naturally  take  up 
hay  first,  for  although  perhaps  in  the  stables  of  the  land  grain 
plays  the  more  important  part,  in  the  barn  it  is  the  hay  that  is 
foremost,  and  the  barns  outnumber  the  stables  ten  to  one,  —  yes 
a  hundred  to  one. 

Taking  into  account  all  kinds  of  stall-fed  animals,  hay  is  the 
most  economical  food,  as  it  is  the  commonest,  but  its  worth  is 
not  appreciated.  The  New  York  Experiment  Station  has  dem- 
onstrated that  its  food  value  is  nearly  half  as  large  again  as  its 
cost,  whereas  the  food  value  of  grain  is  only  three-quarters  of 
its  cost ;  and  that  a  hundred  dollars'  worth  of  good  hay  will 
upon  the  average  furnish  half  more  digestible  food  than  one 
hundred  dollars'  worth  of  mill  feed  upon  the  average,  besides 
ten  dollars'  worth  more  of  fertilizing  materials.  The  conclu- 
sion is,  that  for  twenty-five  years  at  least,  hay  and  straw  have 
been  worth,  as  sources  of  animal  and  plant  food,  at  least  twice 
their  market  prices,  and  if  to  anybody  to  the  farmer  himself, 
who  has  animals  and  fields  both  needing  these  supplies  of  food. 
Furthermore,  on  the  average  the  grain  foods  barely  return  in 
food  and  fertilizing  material  an  equivalent  of  their  market 
value,  and  this  is  due  to  the  relatively  high  prices  they  com- 
mand in  the  market.  And  finally,  for  the  past  twenty-five 
years,  the  average  amount  of  hay  which  could  be  bought  for 
ten  dollars  in  New  York,  has  contained  an  amount  of  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  that  was  worth  $6.37,  so  that  the 
farmer  has  sold  an  average  of  fifteen  dollars'  worth  of  food  for 
$3.63,  and  while  this  has  been  going  on,  many  million  dollars' 
worth  of  commercial  fertilizers  have  been  bought  in  that  state 
alone. 


22  HORSE  FEEDING. 

The  following  table  gives  the  result  of  the  analysis  of  various 
grasses  and  hays,  as  made  by  the  New  York  State  Experiment 
Station.  Let  the  reader  recall  that  ash  means  the  mineral 
element;  let  albuminoids  remind  him  of  lean  meat,  the  white 
of  an  egg,  or  gluten,  the  gummy  part  of  wheat;  let  him  re- 
member that  nitrogen-free  extract  and  carbohydrates  are  the  same 
thing,  sugar  and  starch  being  their  purest  forms  ;  and  let  him 
think  of  paper  when  he  sees  the  term  crude  Uber.  The  figures 
represent  the  percentage,  or  may  be  taken  as  the  number  of 
pounds  of  each  in  100  lbs.  of  the  food.  To  illustrate,  take  the 
first,  Timothy  grass ;  the  table  means  that  in  100  pounds  of 
this  green  grass  there  were  found  57  31-100  pounds  of  water, 
2  8-100  lbs.  of  ash,  3  23-100  lbs.  of  albuminoids,  and  the  same 
for  all  the  other  parts.  Remember  that  the  coefficient  of  digest- 
ibility is  the  digestible  percentage  of  any  given  element  of  the 
food.  The  table  styled  Per  cent.  Digestible  Matter  is 
found  by  bringing  the  figures  in  Table  B  to  bear  on  those  in 
Table  A,  and  shows  the  number  of  pounds  of  digestible  matter 
in  100  pounds  of  the  various  foods  :  j 

Table  A.  j 

Grasses^  Clover^  etc.^      Water  Ash  Album-  Crude  Carbohy-  Fat 

in  bloom.                                         inoids  fiber  drates 

Timothy,  1887 57.31  2.08  3.23  13.38  22.64  1.361 

Timothy,  1888 67.09  1.412.50  11. .54  16  36  1.101; 

Timothy,  seed  formed. 48. 14  2.25  3.28  18.16  26.72  1.45  i, 

Orchardgrass 71.48  2.14  2.65  10.23  12.29  1.21  ;l 

Ky.  blue  or  June  grass  58.76  2.03  3.18  13.29  21.27  1.47 'i 

Meadow  Fescue 68.70  1.97  2.44  10.93  14.82  1.141 

Tall  Meadow  oat 69.46  1.73  2.60  10.63  14.38  1.20  ( 

Meadow  Foxtail 72.63  1.713.12  8.66  12.72  1.16^ 

Fort  Bellingham 62.58  2.35  3.33  12.49  17.96  1.29  1 

Wood  Meadow  grass.. 55. 55  2.16  2.86  16.29  21.82  1.32^ 

Bennett's  Native  Wild. 57.62  1.88  3.31  16.30  19.44  1.45  » 

Sweet  Vernal  grass.  ..67.41  1.57  2.10  10.74  17.02  1.16  i< 

Ox-eye  daisies 78  46  1.59  1.28  5.62  12.16  .89  ^ 

Buttercups 79  20  1.45  1.56  6.24  10.56  .99  < 

Medium  red  clover 68  34  2.05  4.51  9.77  14.03  1.30  t 

Alsike  clover 77.29  1.95  3.66  5  32  10.76  1.02  ^ 

White  clover 78.23  1.79  4.42  4.70  9.44  1.42  t 

Bokharaclover G9.20  1613.52  13.12  11.45  1.10  t 

Lucerne  or  Alfalfa.... 67.46  2.95  5.91  10.51  12.02  1.15  » 

Yellow  trefoil 78.52  1.37  3.40  6.31  9.29  1.11  j 


THE  VARIOUS   FOODS. 


23 


Chess  or  cheat 60.35 

Hays 

Timothy  in  bloora 15  35 

Timothy  in  seed 15.35 

Orchard  grass 15.35 

Mixed  hays 14  80 

Red  clover  in  bloom  . . .  15.35 

Alsike  clover 15. .35 

Clover  rowen 14. 33 

Lucerne  or  Alfalfa 15.02 


1.85     3.17      13.05    20.46 


1.12 


4.16    6.59 

26  88 

44  33 

2.69 

3.65     5.34 

29.95 

43.65 

2.36 

6.13    8.12 

31.14 

35.73 

3.53 

4.92     637 

32.30 

39.15 

2.46 

5.50  12.05 

25.99 

37  63 

3.48 

6.55  11.44 

24.95 

38.37 

3.34 

6.23  11.08 

2S.80 

36.36 

3.20 

6.69  13.81 

27.28 

34.97 

2.26 

Table  B. 

Coefficients  of  Digestibility. 
Food.                       Dry     Albu-  Crude  Carbo-  Fat  Determina- 

Sub-    mi-  fiber  hy-                tion  made  by 

stance  noids  drates 

Timothy 65.7      60.4  62.1  718  51.5  Jordon 

Timothy 54.1      55.5  51.7  61.0  34.6  Jordon 

Timothy —      42.1  52.0  65.7  47.6  Jordon 

Timothy 51.6      45.2  42.8  58  9  55.0  Jordon 

Orchard  grass... .60.0      60.0  66.7  57.3  57.4  N.Y.Ex.  Sta. 

Orchard  grass... .57.5      60.9  60.0  55.3  55.4  N.Y.Ex.  Sta. 

Orchard  grass... .54.4     58.5  57.5  54  4  51.2  Jordon 

Red  top 57.6      60.4  61.2  59.1  44.2  Jordon 

Witch  grass 59.9      64.2  67.6  62.1  60.0  Jordon 

Wild  oat  grass... 59. 6      48.6  65.1  62.1  38.2  Jordon 

Bluejoint 39.9      565  36.5  43.2  37.0  Jordon 

Mixed  hay —       49.0  49.0  58.0  50.0  Sturtevant 

Mixedhay 54  3      46  9  46.8  55.8  50.0  N.Y.Ex.Sta. 

Clover  hay  (red). 51. 7      49.4  47.5  57.6  42.6  Armsby 

Alfalfa  hay 59  4      68.8  43.3  71.8  48.4  N.Y.Ex.  Sta. 

Alfalfa  hay —      77.0  49.0  64.0  54.0  O'Brine 

Al*ike  clover 619      64.0  510  74.1  35.1  Jordon 

White  clover....  66.0      73.2  60.6  69.5  50.6  Tordou 

Buttercup 56.1      56  3  41.1  66.9  69.7  Jordon 

White  weed 57.8      58.4  45.5  66.7  62.0  Jordon 


Table  C. 
Showing  Per  Cent.  Digestible  Matter. 

Grasses^  etc.  Dry 

Mat- 
ter 

Timothy  (in  bloom) . .  18.33 

Tim'thy  (seed form'd) 28.88 

Orchard  grass 16.11 

Kentucky  blue 23.65 

Medium  red  clover. .  .16  37 


Albu- 

Crude 

Carbo- 

Fat  Nutri- 

mi- 

fiber 

hy- 

tive 

noids 

drates 

ratio 

1.22 

5.75 

10.26 

.54  1:14.2 

160 

9.06 

16  75 

.71  1:10.9 

1.56 

6.19 

6.79 

.65  1:9.4 

1.92 

8.13 

12.57 

.65  1 :11.1 

2.23 

4.64 

8.08 

.55  1:6  3 

24  HORSE  FEEDING. 

Alsike  clover 12.87    2.11      2.52  7.17       .50  1:5.1 

Lucerne  or  Alf alia... 19.32   4.06      4.55         8.63       .56  1:3.6 


Timothy  (in bloom).. 47. 15    3.21      13.38      27.79      1.32  1:13.9 
Tim'thy(seedform'jd)47.15  2.60      14.76      26.37      1.16  1:16.9 

Orchard  grass 47.83   5.28      18.53      19.66      1.90  1:8.1 

Mixed  hays... 46.26    3.05      15.47      22.47      1.23  1:13.4 

Red  clover 43.76    5.95      12.36      21.67      1.48  1:6.3 

Alsike  clover 48.00    6.59      11.82      25.55      1.62  1:6.3 

( The  nutritive  ratio  is  the  ratio  of  the  albuminoids  to  the 
total  of  the  crude  fiber,  carbohydrates  and  fat,  counting  the  fat 
as  two  and  a  half  times  more  valuable  than  the  fiber  and  carbo- 
hydrates.) 

Table  D. 
Manure  Value  of  Hays. 
(Figures  show  number  lbs.  in  one  ton,  2000  lbs. ) 
Phos-    Potash  Soda  Lime  Mag-  Ni- 
phor-  nesia  tro- 

icAcid  gen. 

Timothy 5.0         27.5        4.4       7.2    1.7       21.0 

Orchard  grass 8.2         38.5        4.7       8.3    2.0       22.0 

Kentucky  blue  grass 7.3         29.2        —        4.0    1.3       21.1 

Meadow  oat  grass 6.4         34.4        5.5       7.0    1.5       23.2 

Meadow  foxtail 8.8         43.8        9.5       8.4    2.4      30.8 

Medium  red  clover 5.2         22.4        9.6     33.2    4.6      38.6 

Alsike  clover 7.5         48.5        —      37.6    6.5      36.5 

Alfalfa 9.3         27.8        1.7     54.6    3.2      40.2 

(  This  table  also  has  a  bearing  on  the  relative  value  of  hays 
in  the  formation  of  bone. ) 


i 


Table  E. 
Food  Value  of  Hays. 
(  New  York  Experiment  Station  Calculation). 
<  Market    Food    Fertiliz-    Total    Total 

value       value    ing  value  value    value 
per  ton    per  ton  per  ton     per  ton  per 

cent  of 
cost 

Timothy #11.00      $14.80  $4.47         $23.59     176. 

Orchard  grass 11.00         14.86     6.08  25.28     190. 

Kentucky  blue  grass.  11.00         14.68     4.85  23.82     178. 

Tall  meadow  oat  grass  11.00         14.68     5.26  24.23     182. 

Meadow  foxtail 11.00         13.82     7.08  24.93     189. 

Meadow  fescue 11.00        14.47     5.07  23.76    178. 


$15.54 

15.00 

425.21 

187. 

14.70 

5.38 

24.37 

201. 

13.96 

7.25 

26.58 

278. 

16.39 

9.40 

30.58 

234. 

15.52 

8.07 

28.12 

295. 

15.64 

7.96 

28.17 

236. 

THE  VARIOUS  FOODS.  25 

Hungarian  grass $11.00 

Mixed  grass 10.00 

Red  clover 8.00 

White  clover 11.00 

Alsike  clover 8.00 

Alfalfa 10.00 

Study  of  the  foregoing  tables  will  show  that  although  hays 
do  not  on  the  whole  differ  enough  to  make  the  choice  a  very 
serious  matter,  yet  the  figures  have  a  significance.  For  instance. 
Table  D  shows  clearly  the  superior  value  of  clover  as  a  bone 
maker  for  young  stock,  and  the  inferiority  of  timothy  as  a 
manure  producer.  Table  C  shows  that  timothy  and  Kentucky 
blue  grass  are  the  best  fatteners,  alfalfa  and  clover  the  best 
muscle  makers.  The  careful  student  can  draw  many  other 
conclusions. 

Practical  feeders  differ  somewhat  as  to  which  is  the  best  hay 
for  horses.  Many  argue  with  Dr.  Michener  that  it  is  timothy. 
Others  think  that  Kentucky  blue  grass  deserves  its  reputation. 
Still  others  argue  for  clover,  and  their  arguments  deserve  con- 
sideration. They  point  to  the  superiority  of  clover  in  its 
mineral  elements,  those  that  go  to  make  the  bone ;  and  its  al- 
buminous elements,  those  that  go  to  make  the  muscles  and  the 
flesh.  They  urge  that  it  makes  the  best  manure  ;  that  it  comes 
nearer  a  perfect  ration  complete  within  itself  than  any  other 
crop ;  that  it  can  be  most  cheaply  produced ;  that  it  is  both  a 
summer  and  winter  food ;  and  that  it  develops  most  rapidly  and 
economically  the  whole  animal  structure.  But  even  the  friends 
of  clover  admit  that  blue  grass  should  not  be  discarded,  and 
that  it  is  very  valuable  for  early  and  late  pasture  and  feeding 
lots.  They  urge  merely  that  its  importance  has  been  over- 
estimated. 

It  would,  however,  appear  that  the  choice  between  the  various 
hays  is  affected  by  various  considerations.  We  have  seen  that 
age  is  one  factor.  Work  is  another.  Farm  horses  and  all 
heavy  workers  need  the  fat  making  hays.  Roadsters,  trotters, 
and  thoroughbreds  do  best  on  the  hays  where  the  proportion  of 
albuminoids  is  greater.  Then,  too,  the  horse  owner  raising 
his  own  hay  has  the  circumstances  of  his  farm  and  his  location 
to  take  into  account.    He  finds  timothy  commended  to  him  by 


26  HORSE  FEEDING. 

its  habit  of  growth  and  productiveness.      He  finds  that  blue 
grass  is  not  fitted  to  produce  a  good  hay  crop  in  the  east, 
though  furnishing  excellent  pasturage  when  well  mixed  with 
other  grasses ;  through  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  valleys  it  is  a 
general  favorite.      If  he  wants  to  renovate  his  soil,  clover  is 
rightly  his  preference.      Alfalfa  is  getting  to  be  better  known 
and  better  liked  through  all  the  country,  though  here  and  there 
criticism  of  it  is  heard.      Marvin,  for  instance,  says  his  expe- 
rience with  it  has  not  been  satisfactory.    ''It  does  very  well, "    | 
he  writes,  "  for  brood-mares  and  youngsters ;  but  it  is  a  washy   \ 
grass  and  affects  the  kidneys  of  the  horses  in  training.       At  j 
least  such  has  been  my  experience.      Alfierella,  commonly   | 
called  filaree,  is  a  rank  growing  grass  that  horses  are  very  fond    I 
of,  and  that  I  consider  preferable  to  alfalfa  for  turf  horses.   '[ 
The  natural  wild-oat  of  California  provides  excellent  forage,   ; 
aud  animals  take  much  to  burr-clover  after  it  is  ripe  and  dry."    1 

All  agree  that  any  hay  should  be  crisp,  clean,  fresh,  with  a  ( 
sweet,  pleasant  smell.  It  is  best  fed  when  not  less  than  one  i 
year  nor  more  than  two  years  old.  New  hay  is  hard  to  digest  ; 
and  produces  much  slobbering  and  sometimes  purging  and  ir-  \ 
ritation  of  the  skin.  If  new  hay  is  fed  at  all,  it  should  be  ; 
mixed  with  old.  When  hay  is  kept  too  long,  it  loses  part  of  i 
it«  nourishment,  and  although  it  may  not  be  positively  injuri-  j 
ous,  it  is  hard,  dry,  and  less  digestible.  Second  crop  or  after-  J 
math  is  not  held  to  be  good  hay  for  horses.  ^1 

The  value  of  hay  depends  on  the  time  in  cutting,  as  well  as  J 
the  care  in  curing.  It  ought  to  be  cut  when  in  full  flower,  j 
but  before  the  seeds  fall ;  if  left  longer,  it  becomes  dry,  woody,  j 
and  lacking  in  nutrition.  The  analysis  at  the  New  York  Ex-  '\ 
periment  Station  showed  that  timothy  cut  after  the  seeds  had  i^ 
formed  contained  10.2  lbs.  less  of  ash  in  the  ton  than  that  cut  '; 
when  in  full  bloom ;  25  lbs. less  of  albuminoids ;  13.6  lbs.  less  \ 
of  carbohydrates;  6.6  lbs.  less  of  fat;  and  55.4  lbs.  more  of  j 
crude  fibre.  Evidently  there  was  serious  loss  in  both  nutri-  j 
tive  and  digestible  value.  If  Hungarian  grass  or  millet  is  j 
allowed  to  ripen  before  cutting,  a  great  deal  of  the  nutriment  <' 
goes  into  the  seed,  thereby  making  the  stems  a  sort  of  straw  i 
rather  than  real  hay.  It  will  be  a  little  more  difficult  to  make  1 
hay  of  grass  cut  so  early  as  this,  but  it  will  cure  in  the  cock   \ 


xriE  VARIOUS   FOODS.  27 

for  the  most  part.  The  result  should  be  a  first-class  hay  with 
uo  danger  whatever  from  the  seed. 

It  is  important  to  keep  hay  in  the  field  as  short  a  time  as 
possible  after  it  is  cut.  Smith  asserts  that  one  hour  more  in 
the  sun  than  is  necessary  results  in  a  loss  of  from  15  to  20  per 
cent,  in  the  feeding  value.  On  the  other  hand,  hay  spoils  in 
the  mow  or  rick  when  harvested  too  green  or  not  dried  enough. 
When  from  this  cause  it  has  become  "  mow-burnt,"  it  has  a 
very  brown  color,  and  will  probably  be  here  and  there  blotched 
with  verv  dark  seams,  almost  black,  runnini?  through  the  mow 
or  rick,  showing  how  very  nearly  it  has  come  to  getting  on  fire. 
Hay  that  has  so  suffered  always  has  an  over-sweet,  sickly 
smeFi,  and  there  are  many  people  who,  knowing  no  better, 
suppose  that  because  of  this  sweet  smell  such  hay  is  necessarily 
very  good.  Horses  will  eat  it  greedily,  and  so  the  idea  gains 
ground.  But  such  hay  is  not  fit  food  for  horses  at  all.  It 
affects  their  kidneys  and  bowels,  causes  them  to  fall  off  in  con- 
dition, and  may,  if  fed  continuously,  produce  serious  disease. 

Hay  should  be  neither  too  brittle  nor  too  dusty.  If  dusty,  it 
should  be  dampened  before  feeding. 

Bad  hay  and  the  bad  use  of  hay  cause  many  of  the  ailments 
of  horses.  For  instance,  musty  or  mouldy  hay  has  often  been 
said  to  produce  that  peculiar  disease  known  variously  as  cere- 
bro-spinal  meningitis,  putrid  sore  throat,  or  choking  distemper. 
To  the  same  cause  is  often  due  the  disease  known  as  broken 
wind,  or  heaves.  Spooner,  writing  in  1842,  said :  "The imme- 
diate cause  of  broken  wind  is  obviously  the  circumstance  of 
sudden  exertion  on  a  full  stomach.  In  proportion  to  the  indi- 
gestible nature  of  food  is  the  disease  likely  to  occur.  Thus, 
musty  and  damaged  hay  is  a  very  frequent  cause  ;  and  this  hay 
being  frequently  given  to  agricultural  horses  accounts  in  great 
measure  for  the  disease  being  more  frequent  with  them  than 
with  any  others.  Nimrod,  the  celebrated  sporting  writer,  says 
the  disease  is  extremely  rare  in  France,  where  he  now  resides  ; 
and  this  he  attributes  to  the  fact  of  sweet  straw  being  gener- 
ally used  instead  of  hay,  particularly  amongst  farm  horses.'' 

Professor  Williams,  of  Edinburgh,  says  :  "  To  give  my  own 
opinion  I  have  no  hesitation  in  asserting  that  broken  wind  is 
generally  due  to  improper  food,  more  particularly  to  bad, 


28  HORSE  FEEDING. 

musty,  or  coarse  nay,  containina^  a  large  quantity  of  woody 
fiber,  from'being  allowed  to  become  too  ripe  before  being  cut, 
and  to  a  superabundant  allowance  of  hay  of  any  kind,  with  an 
insufficient  supply  of  corn." 

Dr.  Smith,  of  Toronto,  says :  "  A  common  cause  is  from  rid- 
ing or  driving  fast  immediately  after  feeding,  or  drinking  a 
large  quantity  of  water.  It  is  also  produced  by  feeding  on 
dusty  clover  hay ;  it  is  also  a  sequel  of  some  of  the  diseases  of 
the  air  passages,  and  of  the  chest." 

Professor  Law,  of  Cornell  University,  says :  "  The  causes  of 
heaves  are  overfeeding  on  clover  hay,  chaff,  cut  straw,  and 
other  bulky  and  innutritious  foods.  In  Arabia,  in  Spain,  and 
in  California,  where  there  is  no  long  winter  feeding  on  hay, 
and  in  our  Territories,  where  clover  is  not  used,  heaves  is  vir- 
tually unknown;  it  has  advanced  westward  just  in  proportion 
as  clover  hay  has  been  introduced  as  the  general  fodder  for 
horses,  and  it  has  disappeared  in  England,  and  in  New  Eng- 
land, in  proportion  as  the  soil  has  become  clover  sick,  and  as 
other  aliment  had  to  be  supplied.  The  worst  conditions  are 
when  a  horse  is  left  in  the  stable  for  days  and  weeks  eating 
clover  hay,  or  even  imperfectly  cured,  dusty  hay  of  other 
kinds,  to  the  extent  of  thirty  pounds  and  upwards  daily,  and  is 
suddenly  taken  out  and  driven  at  a  rapid  pace." 

Not  alone  for  the  reasons  suggested  in  these  extracts,  but 
for  others  equally  potent,  it  has  come  to  be  the  general  opinion 
that  less  hay  should  be  fed.  Chief  ampng  them  is  the  fact  that 
the  horse  has  but  one  stomach,  and  a  small  one  at  that.  Cattle 
and  sheep  are  ruminants,  chew  the  cud,  and  have  four  stom- 
achs. They  are  the  animals  that  can  make  the  best  use  of 
coarse,  bulky  food.  The  horse  makes  poorer  use  of  it,  and 
when  it  is  his  chief  ration  his  stomach  gets  so  distended  as  to 
make  him  clumsy  and  hard  of  motion.  This  result  is  seen  in 
the  spiritless  horses  of  many  of  our  hay-feeding  farmers.  Even 
when  horses  are  at  light  work,  if  kept  entirely  on  hay  they 
soon  become  pot-bellied,  fall  off  in  flesh,  and  do  not  thrive. 
Unless  colts  are  fed  some  grain,  they  grow  up  to  be  long,  lean, 
and  awkward,  never  making  as  good  horses  as  those  that  have 
not  been  restricted  in  food  to  grass  and  hay. 

Therefore   the   rule  is   laid  down  that  the  average  horse, 


THE   VARIOUS   FOODS.  29 

getting  grain,  should  be  allowed  from  10  to  12  pounds  of  good 
hay  a  day,  fed  once  or  twice. 

Grass  and  Green  Forage.—  Although  grass  is  the  nat- 
ural food  for  horses,  little  need  be  said  of  it,  for  under  present 
conditions  it  is  seldom  eaten  except  in  the  pasture.  There  the 
horse  can  look  out  for  himself.  It  is  true,  though  at  first 
glance  it  may  seem  strange,  that  none  of  the  grasses  will  suflSce 
for  horses  at  work.  Consideration  will  show  that  while  grass 
is  the  natural  food,  work  is  not  the  natural  condition  of  the 
horse.  It  is  an  artificial  condition,  forced  on  him  by  the  needs 
of  man,  and  must  be  met  in  artificial  ways.  Therefore  it  is 
that  horses  fed  on  grass  soon  tire  on  the  road  or  at  hard  work 
in  the  field.  They  are  soft,  sweat  easily,  and  purge.  Never- 
theless, grass  is  almost  indispensible  during  the  period  of 
growth,  and  any  horse  will  profit  by  being  turned  out  to  pasture 
now  and  then.  Inasmuch  as  grass  acts  as  an  alterative  on 
horses  accustomed  to  grain  and  hay,  when  it  is  fed  caution 
should  be  used  at  first.  If  cut  for  the  horse,  it  should  be 
fed  fresh  or  but  slightly  wilted.  Professor  Michener  says 
that  during  febrile  diseases  grass  acts  almost  as  a  medicine, 
lessening  the  fever  and  favoring  recovery ;  and  some  chronic 
diseases,  chronic  cough,  for  instance,  disappear^entirely  when 
the  suff'erer  is  at  grass. 

Green  forage  is  very  cooling  in  hot  weather,  but  should 
always  be  given  quite  fresh.  Beans  and  peas  may  be  mixed 
with  the  corn  where  horses  are  doing  hard  work,  especially 
after  they  come  in  from  a  long  day. 

Straw,  Fodder,  Etc.—  It  is  not  easy  to  classify  further 
the  bulky  horse  foods,  for  popular  usage  of  the  terms  does  not 
agree  with  the  botanical  sub-divisions.  Already  we  have  wan- 
dered from  the  strictly  scientific  course  by  mentioning  clover 
under  the  head  of  hay  and  grass.  The  fact  is  that  fresh  clover 
is  not  the  one  and  dried  clover  is  not  the  other.  Clover  is  a 
plant  of  the  pulse  family,  the  botanical  order  known  as  leg- 
uminosce,  and  is  allied  to  peas,  beans,  etc.  All  farmers,  how- 
ever, think  of  it  and  treat  it  as  a  grass  or  a  hay,  and  for  ail 
practical  purposes  that  is  legitimate.  The  scientific  phase  of 
the  case,  nevertheless,  is  to  be  remembered  when  you  notice 
clover  later  on  in  a  table  of  the  food  value  of  straws. 


30  HORSE  FEEDING. 

There  is  another  term  inexactly  used.  Ordinarily  we  think 
of  straw  as  the  dried  stems  of  such  cereals  as  wheat  and  oats. 
But  the  name  is  also  applied  to  maize,  peas,  beans,  etc. 

*  •  Fodder  "  is  a  still  more  uncertain  term.  It  may  mean  any  or 
all  of  the  food  material  supplied  by  man  to  domestic  herbivorous 
animals.  It  may  include  hay  or  roots.  Where  to  distinguish 
between  it  and  forage  is  not  clear.  But  for  our  purposes  these 
terms  may  in  the  main  be  confined  to  such  grasses  or  plants  as 
are  commonly  known  as  hay  or  straw. 

Maize  stover  is  the  name  now  accepted  for  the  stover,  stalks, 
or  straw  of  corn,  being  what  remains  after  the  ears  of  ripe 
corn  have  been  removed ;  it  has  been  generally  known  as  corn 
fodder.  On  the  other  hand,  ladder  corn  denotes  the  product 
when  corn  is  grown  as  a  fodder,  whether  harvested  when 
mature  or  at  an  earlier  stage  of  growth ;  fodder  corn  contains 
the  ears  if  such  are  formed.  Maize  stover  is  best  classified  as  a 
fodder. 

The  straws  are  not  much  fed  to  horses  in  America,  but 
abroad  they  are  commonly  mixed  wtth  hay,  and  are  coming  to 
be  used  more  here,  especially  on  the  farm.  So  it  is  worth 
while  to  note  their  composition.  Analyses  have  shown  it  to  be 
as  follows : 

Water  Ash  Albu-  Crude  Carbo-  Fat 

mi-      fiber  hy- 

noids  drates 

Wheat  straw 17.86    4.16    2.9S    42.74  31.04  1.22 

Oat  straw 16.28    4.83    2.35    36.77  37.97  1.80 

Maize  stover  (field  cured)49. 01     3.62    3.2.5     18.78  24.13  1.21 

Maize  stover  (in  barn)... 22.63    5.35    6.47     28.43  35.87  1.25 

The  per  cents  of  digestible  matter  are ; 

Dry  Albu-  Crude  Carbo-  Fat  Nutri- 

mat-  mi-  fiber  hy-  tive 

ter  noids  dratps  ratio 

Wheat  straw .77  22.22  12.42     .33  1:46 

Oat  straw 42.11      .42  21.18  20  20     .69  1:102.3 

Maize  stover(f'ldcur'd)31. 61  1.64  12.49  15.08     .76  1:17  9 

Maize  stover(b'rnc'rd)  47.97  3.26  18.91  22.42     .78  1:13  3 

The  analyses  of  both  the  wheat  and  oat  straw  were  of  sam- 
ples from  field  stacks ;  hence  the  water  percentage  is  somewhat 
higher  than  for  similar  straw  that  has  been  protected  from  the 


THE  VARIOUS   FOODS.  31 

weather.  Wheat  straw  is  held  to  be  less  valuable  for  feeding 
than  good  oat  straw,  one  reason  being  that  the  grain  is  allowed 
to  ripen  before  being  harvested  and  so  the  straw  becomes  more 
Woody.  Oat  straw,  too,  is  more  easily  digested.  The  maize 
stover  contains  more  of  the  albuminoids  than  either  the  wheat 
or  oat  straw,  and  shows  a  larger  percentage  of  digestibility  in 
respect  to  all  the  valuable  elements.  Its  worth  as  fodder  has 
not  been  recognized  as  it  should  be. 

Comparison  of  the  analyses  of  straw  and  hay  will  show  that 
straw  is  inferior  both  in  albuminoids  and  carbohydrates. 
Therefore  more  bulk  must  be  consumed  to  get  the  same  benefit. 
That  is  why  straw  is  less  advantageously  fed  to  horses  than  to 
other  stock.  Yet  when  horses  are  idle,  as  in  the  case  with 
most  farm  horses  in  the  winter,  the  straw-stack  can  be  utilized 
with  economy  and  without  harm.  The  horses  come  to  like  it, 
but  will  do  so  the  quicker  if  at  first  a  little  salt  water  is  sprink- 
led over  it. 

When  used  to  mix  with  hay,  it  will  be  wise  to  choose  that 
hay  which  contains  in  excess  the  elements  in  which  straw  is 
deficient.  Clover,  on  account  of  its  abundance  of  nitrogen, 
answers  the  best.  A  ton  of  clover  properly  mixed  with  a  ton 
of  straw  will  equal  in  feeding  value  two  tons  of  timothy.  Cut 
straw  and  bran  form  a  better  ration  than  either  alone.  Straw 
can  be  used,  too,  with  great  advantage  when  roots  are  fed. 
The  English  custom,  when  mixing  hay  and  straw,  is  to  take 
two  parts  of  hay  and  one  of  straw.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  only  clean,  bright  straw  is  nutritious,  and  that  which  is 
mouldy  and  weather-stained  should  be  used  for  littering. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  note  before  leaving  the  subject  what 
one  of  our  best  writers  on  the  horse,  "Aurelius,"  has  said  of 
straw.  In  discussing  the  food  of  colts  he  wrote:  "I  have 
learned  to  value  wheat  straw  as  well  as  skim  milk.  If  wheat 
straw  be  cut  when  the  berry  is  ripe,  but  before  it  is  old  and 
dry,  before  the  sap  and  green  have  left  the  stalk  and  the  straw 
has  become  woody,  I  may  say  that  the  grain  will  not  only 
make  better  flour,  but  the  stalks  or  straw  will  make  excellent 
feed,  nutritious  and  healthy,  which  the  stock  will  eat  readily. 
It  would  be  better  than  half  the  hay  which  is  fed  to  city 
horses,  gathered  after  it  has  been  wet,  and  which  is  productive 


32  HOKSE   FEEDING. 

of  the  heaves.  With  such  wheat  straw,  and  with  skim  milk 
and  with  ground  oats  and  bran,  with  carrots  every  day,  I  would 
run  my  risk  of  getting  a  colt  into  condition  to  exhibit  any 
where." 

Another  writer  testifies :  "  A  short  time  ago  a  valuable  horse, 
an  imported  draft  stallion,  was  fed  all  the  hay  he  would  eat 
with  dire  result.    It  took  an  experienced  horseman  months  to 
correct  the  mischief  done  by  a  season's  stuffing  with  hay. 
Since  that  severe  lesson  I  have  had  constantly  the  care  of  work- 
horses and  have  found  that  fully  as  good  results  in  feeding  j 
were  had  where  good  bright  straw,  of  which  the  animals  ate  ! 
little,  was  used  for  roughness  and  variety,  but  no  greater  quan-  -j 
tity  of  grain  was  fed  than  when  hay  was  a  large  and  constant  • 
part  of  the  diet."  : 

A  writer  from  Iowa  says:  "The  teams  we  are  working  this  J 
winter  are  keeping  in  good  flesh  on  oat-straw  three  times  a  day  i 
and  two  quarts  of  corn  twice  a  day.  The  fact  of  the  matter  is,  ) 
under  our  conditions  we  can  keep  a  brood  mare  cheaper  than  I 
we  can  keep  a  cow,  and  we  can  raise  a  good  draft  colt  as  cheap  ] 
as  we  can  raise  a  steer." 

Maize  stover  (  or  corn  fodder)  is  a  better  feed  for  horses  than  \ 
is  commonly  supposed.  But  it  must  be  bright  and  well  cured,  i 
It  should  neither  be  left  standing  for  months  in  the  fields  nor  ' 
be  storecl  in  the  barn  loft  while  damp,  and  there  allowed  to  ; 
mould  and  rot.  In  either  case  it  then  becomes  both  unpalata-  : 
ble  and  unhealthy.  Properly  harvested,  cured  and  kept,  horses  ! 
are  very  fond  of  it.  On  account  of  its  excess  of  fat  making  ' 
materials  it  is  best  used  as  a  winter  food,  when  the  horses  are  i 
comparatively  idle,  and  at  such  times  it  can  be  safely  and  i 
economically  substituted  for  much  of  the  hay  ration,  especially  ! 
if  fed*  with  clover  or  some  other  highly  nitrogenous  food,  i 
There  is  much  difference  in  its  quality,  and  some  varieties  are  j 
relished  much  more  than  others.  Fodder  from  sweet  corn  is  ] 
always  eaten  with  greater  apparent  relish  than  the  common  | 
field  variety  or  that  grown  from  large  Western  corn.  | 

Analyses  of  corn  fodder  show  that  nearly  half  of  the  dry  \ 
matter  is  contained  in  the  ears,  and  of  this  one  fifth  is  in  the  j 
cob.  The  leaves  and  husks  contain  one-third  of  the  total,  and  I 
there  is  three  times  as  much  of  the  remainder  in  the  butt,  or  ] 

I 


THE  VARIOUS   FOODS.  33 

harder  and  tougher  part,  as  in  the  tops .  When  fodder  is  fed 
whole  there  is  more  or  less  waste  of  the  butts  by  the  animal. 
From  the  results  it  would  seem  that  this  loss  would  be  from 
ten  to  fifteen  pounds  in  every  100  pounds  of  dry  matter.  Prac- 
tical experience  proves  that  much  of  this  may  be  saved  by 
cutting  up  the  cured  fodder  or  putting  it  in  the  silo. 

An  Ohio  breeder,  who  has  been  experimenting  with  timothy, 
clover,  and  corn  fodder,  sums  up  his  experience  as  follows: 
"Last  summer  we  made  considerable  clover  hay,  cured  it  nicely 
and  put  it  in  the  barn.  We  also  put  up  some  timothy,  of  which 
we  fed  until  late  in  the  Fall,  saving  a  part  to  feed  this  Spring 
when  the  horses  will  have  hard  work  to  do.  We  began  feeding 
the  clover  hay  in  November,  and  continued  the  practice  most 
all  the  time  till  the  first  of  March ;  but  for  some  reason  the 
horses  did  not  do  as  well  as  they  should.  Their  coats  became 
dry  and  rough,  and  they  did  not  seem  to  relish  their  ration. 

"  We  had  occasionally  to  give  them  a  feed  of  corn  fodder  or 
timothy  hay  to  dry  up  the  slabbers,  one  of  them  slabbering 
so  bad  at  times  that  nothing  would  do  her  any  good'  but  a 
change  in  her  feed.  We  fed  the  hay  because  we  had  plenty  of 
it  in  the  barn,  and  it  can  scarcely  be  given  away  in  these  parts 
at  present;  also  we  didn't  need  to  bestow  so  much  labor  upon 
our  corn  fodder  to  save  it. 

"For  a  while  now  we  have  been  feeding  corn  fodder,  and 
although  the  fodder  is  not  as  bright  and  clean  as  it  should  be 
(for  there  isn't  much  good  fodder  this  Spring)  our  horses 
relish  it  exceedingly,  doing  considerably  better  with  less  grain 
ration  than  when  we  fed  clover  hay.  Their  appetites  have  im- 
proved, their  hair  and  skin  are  becoming  soft  and  smooth,  and 
they  are  gaining  remarkably  in  flesh.  For  several  Winters 
previous  to  this  we  have  been  feeding  corn  fodder  to  our 
horses  with  good  results ;  they  come  out  in  the  Srping  with 
better  wind  for  hard  work  than  when  fed  on  most  any  other 
food. 

"  Some  farmers  object  to  feeding  fodder  in  the  stable.  They 
say  it  leaves  too  many  stalks  to  deal  with,  but  if  they  take  a 
little  time  each  evening  just  before  their  feeding  and  clean  out 
the  stalks  that  have  accumulated,  throwing  them  in  a  lot  for 
the  reception  of  corn  stalks,  waste  straw  and  everything  else 


34  HORSE  FEEDING. 

that  helps  to  increase  the  manure  heap,  the  matter  is  remedied. 

''The  awkwardness  some  feeders  display  when  putting  in: 
fodder  to  the  horses  is  enough  to  make  the  bystander's  eyes* 
water,  especially  if  said  bystander  'knows  how.'  Some  will 
take  a  bunch  of  fodder  nine  feet  long  and  try  to  put  it  in  a 
manger  4  %  feet  long.  And  this  is  easily  done  if  you  under- 
stand how.  Place  the  left  arm  under  the  bunch  two-thirds  of 
the  way  from  the  butts,  with  the  right  arm  over  the  centre,  and 
break ;  then  it  will  just  fill  the  manger  nicely. 

"There  is  no  better  supplement  to  short  pastures  during  the 
latter  part  of  Summer  and  early  Fall  than  well-grown  succulent 
corn  fodder  cut  just  as  the  ears  are  coming  into  milk,  and  fed 
green.  Most  broodmares  and  young  stock  are  very  fond  of  it. 
Stowell's  ever-green  sweet  corn  gives  the  best  satisfaction  of 
any  we  have  ever  tried.  It  is  a  vigorous  grower,  tender  and 
sweet." 

Waldo  F.  Brown,  another  Ohio  farmer,  says  : — 

"  I  have  found  that  I  could  winter  a  full-grown  cow  or  horse 
on  the  fodder  from  an  acre  of  good  corn,  and  the  cost  of  saving 
this  acre  and  putting  it  in  the  barn  is  usually  less  than  half  a 
ton  of  hay  would  sell  for ;  and  when  hay  is  high,  a  quarter  ton 
will  sell  for  enough  to  pay  it.  As  an  example  of  the  economy 
of  corn  fodder  as  compared  with  hay,  I  will  give  the  figures  of 
my  last  year's  crop.  I  grew  12  acres  of  corn,  and  it  cost  me  $18 
to  have  it  put  in  shock  at  6  cents  a  shock  of  120  hills  each.  To 
husk  it  and  bind  the  fodder  in  bundles  cost  8  cents  a  shock  or 
$24  for  the  300  shocks,  but  from  this  we  deduct  3  cents  a  bushel 
for  husking  500  bushels  of  corn,  which  reduces  the  net  cost  to 
$9.  It  took  three  days  for  two  hands  and  a  team  to  put  this 
fodder  into  the  barn,  which  at  regular  wages  for  such  work 
would  be  $10,  making  the  entire  cost  of  this  fodder  in  the  barn 
$37.  We  wintered  on  this  six  horses  and  four  cows,  and  from 
Sept.  1  to  March  1  (  six  months  )  did  not  feed  a  pound  of  hay. 
The  first  of  March  our  fodder  was  gone,  and  in  the  following 
six  weeks  the  stock  ate  hay  that  would  have  sold  for  more 
money  than  the  fodder  had  cost  me,  and  were  not  in  as  good 
condition  as  when  we  made  the  change  in  food. 

"To  get  the  best  results  from  corn  fodder  it  must  be  well 
cured  and  put  into  the  barn  early,  and  then  fed  in  a  warm 


THE   VARIOUS   FOODS.  36 

'stable  in  racks  or  mangers  so  arranged  that  none  of  it  will  be 
wasted.  If  fodder  is  left  in  the  field  until  mid-winter  or  spring, 
and  then  fed  on  the  ground  with  cattle  tramping  over  it,  it  usu- 
ally does  not  pay  for  handling.  It  should  be  cut  about  the 
time  the  ears  begin  to  glaze  —  which  in  my  latitude  is  usually 
from  the  first  to  the  middle  of  September.  Set  the  shocks  up 
firmly  and  tie  the  tops  securely  so  they  will  stand,  and  just  as 
soon  as  the  corn  is  dry  enough  for  the  crib,  husk  it.  bind  the 
fodder  in  medium  sized  bundles,  and  store  it  at  once  in  the 
barn.  I  have  proved  by  many  years'  observation  that  corn 
can  be  cribbed  about  three  weeks  earlier  from  the  shock  than  if 
left  on  the  stalk  without  cutting  up.  We  usually  crib  all  our 
corn  in  October,  escaping  cold  and  snow,  which  so  often 
trouble  in  November. 

"  Counting  that  my  horses  and  cattle  would  have  eaten  only 
12  pounds  of  hay  each  a  day,  my  $37  worth  of  fodder  saved 
nearly  11  tons  of  hay  —  or  to  be  exact,  21,600  pounds,  and  1 
sold  the  hay  for  $10  a  ton." 

Care  must  be  used  in  letting  horses  have  access  to  corn- 
stalks, to  see  that  they  are  not  affected  by  the  corn-stalk  dis- 
ease. The  same  germ  that  causes  this  disease  will  bring  death 
to  horses  as  well  as  to  cattle.  The  disease  on  the  corn-stalk  is 
usually  apparent  after  midsummer  and  appears  as  brown  spots 
on  the  part  of  the  leaf  nearest  the  stalk.  These  spots  are  dead 
and  vary  in  size  from  that  of  pin-heads  to  several  inches,  and 
in  these  the  microscopic  organism  is  always  to  be  found.  Usu- 
ally the  diseased  corn  is  confined  to  clearly  marked  areas  —  not 
infrequently  in  low  places  recently  broken  from  the  sod  of 
wild  grasses.  Sometimes  instead  of  being  confined  locally, 
scattered  stalks  throughout  a  field  may  be  affected,  while  in 
rare  cases  it  may  be  evenly  distributed  over  all  the  field.  Af- 
fected corn  presents  a  stunted  appearance.  The  lower  leaves 
prematurely  die,  and  this  is  more  especially  the  case  if  the 
plant  becomes  invaded  when  quite  young.  In  cases  where 
large  stalks  are  found  affected  the  invasion  usually  takes  place 
after  the  plant  has  attained  a  more  or  less  mature  growth. 

A  Minnesota  farmer  gives  his  experience  with  flax  straw  : 
''Last  winter  I  fed  flax  straw  to  my  stallions,  mares  and  colts, 
also  to  sheep  and  cows,  with  good  results.     The  machine  left 


36                                                 HORSE   FEEDING.  j 

about  three  bushels  of  seed  in  each  ton  of  straw.     I  feed  hay  j 

once  each  day  to  all,  and  a  very  small  feed  of  oats  to  my  work  ; 

horses    and   stallions    twice  each  day.      All  my  stock  came  ? 

through  the  winter  fat  and  fine."  | 

Another  says  :  "  My  neighbors  here  raise  a  good  deal  of  flax,  j 

and  some  of  our  best  stockmen  tell  me  that  stock  of  all  kinds  eat  } 

it  with  a  relish  after  they  get  used  to  it,  and  do  better  on  good  \ 

flax  straw  than  on  any  other  straw.  We  hear  of  no  bad  results  j 
from  its  use  with  brood  mares." 

Chaff  cannot  be  so  unreservedly  approved.    Indeed,  wheat  I 

and  rye  chaff  should  never  be  used  as  food  for  horses.     The  j 

beards  frequently  get  lodged  in  the  mouth  or  throat,  and  make  ■ 

more  or  less  serious  trouble.      In  the  stomach  and  intestines  j 

they  often  serve  as  the  nucleus  of  dangerous  soft  concretions,  j 

Oat  chaff,  if  fed  in  small  quantities  and  mixed  with  cut  hay  or  ; 

corn  fodder,  is  not  so  objectionable  and  is  very  much  relished  \ 

by  horses.    It  is  not  to  be  given  in  large  quantities,  lest  it  cause  ■ 

the  troublesome  and  sometimes  fatal  diarrhcea  that  follows  free  J 

access  to  a  pile  of  oat  chaff.  ' 

The  New  York  Experiment  Station  calculation  of  the  food  '■ 

value  of  straws  is  as  follows:  I 

Market    Food    Fertil-    Total    Total  ?! 

value       value    izing      value     value  per  j 

per  ton    per  ton  value      per  ton  cent,  of  I 
per  ton                 cost 

Oat  straw $9.00       $14,04  $3.20      $21.34       192. 

Wheat 9.00         13.53     2.01        19.49       172.  :' 

Rye 11.00         13.63     1.83        19.44       141.  i 

Barley 9.00         13.77     2.14        19.93       177.  "' 

Buckwheat 5.00         16.15     6.75        27.61       458.  ' 

Pea 6.00         14.93     4.40        23.69       322.  '■ 

Bean 6.00         15.56     7.85        27.95       390. 

Clover 6  00         14.78     5.81        24.91       343.  j 

Maize  stover 6.00         13.10     3.43        20.35       275. 

Forage  Plants,  Fodder,  and  Ensilage. 

Analysis  of  various  forage  plants  has  shown  their  chemical  i 
composition  to  be  as  follows : 

Water  Ash  Album-  Crude  Carbohy-  Fat 
inoids     fiber    drates 
Sorghum, av'ge of 3... 84.00      .77    .97         5.23     8.60  .43 

Sorghum,  amber  cane,82.44      .74  1.17         5.94     9.32  .39 


THE   VARIOUS  FOODS.  37 

Fodder  corn 80.65  .99  1.54  6.10  10.14  .58 

Ensilage,  maize  fodder84.14 .    .96  1.00  5.14  7.92  .84 

Ensilage,  maize  stover59. 29  1.72  3.62  8.11  24.80  2.46 

Ensilage,  H'ng'r'ngr's60.51  2.75  3.30  13.60  17.51  2.33 

Cowpea 84.06  1.83  3.12  3.48  6.91  .60 

Soja  hispida 69.87  2.38  3.34  8.36  14.90  1.15 

Prickly  comfrey 84.36  2.45  2.94  2.61  7.13  .51 

Eye  forage 79.04  1.47  2.85  7.77  7.82  1.05 

Oat  and  pea  forage... 74.81  1.66  3.97  7.98  10.32  1.26 

«  Hungarian  grass 73.49  1.72  3.45  7.81  12.43  1.10 

Percentages  of  digestible  matter  have  been  determined  as 
follows: 

Album-    Crude    Carbo-    Fat    Nutri- 
inoids       fiber       hy-  tive 

Sorghum,  av'geof  3...  .60  3.14  6.71  .37  1:17.9 

Sorghum,  amber ,   .73  3.56  7.17  .33  1:15.9 

Ensillge,  maize  fodder,  .49  3.54  4.90  .76  1:21.2 

Ensilage,  maize  stover,1.77  5.60  16.61  2.21  1 :15.7 

Fodder  corn 1.12  4.39  6.79  .44  1 :19.7 

Fodder  corn  ( or  maize  fodder )  has  been  cut  at  nearly  all 
stages  of  growth  for  feeding,  but  there  is  no  question  that  it 
possesses  the  greatest  nutritive  value  as  it  approaches  maturity. 
By  comparing  its  analysis  with  the  analyses  of  other  plants,  it 
will  be  seen  that  it  contains  a  very  large  percentage  of  water, 
and  that  its  proportion  of  nitrogenous  matter  (  shown  by  the 
nutritive  ratio  )  is  greater  than  that  of  the  straws,  but  less  than 
that  of  the  hays,  and  much  less  than  that  of  the  grasses.  Its 
excess  of  carbohydrates,  just  as  in  the  case  of  the  straws, 
though  to  a  less  degree,  makes  it  desirable  to  feed  it,  either 
green  or  dry,  mixed  with  clover,  bran,  or  other  nitrogenous 
food  materials.  It  is  eaten  with  a  better  relish  if  cut  up, 
crushed,  moistened,  and  mixed  with  bran,  oil-meal,  or  cotton- 
seed meal.  It  should  be  planted  thick  in  drills,  or  hills,  yet 
thin  enough  so  that  the  stalks  will  have  room  to  bear  an  ear. 
The  nearer  mature  the  grain  while  the  stalks  are  yet  green,  the 
better  is  the  quality  of  the  feed.  Green  fodder  is  not  so  desir- 
able, containing  more  water  and  less  protein  and  carbo-hydrate 
elements  than  corn  that  is  well  advanced  toward  ripe  ears. 
Up  to  the  time  the  ear  is  in  silk,  the  per  cent,  of  these  constitu- 
ents is  small.  It  is  only  during  the  period  when  the  entire 
energies  of  the  plant  are  devoted  to  seed  formation  that  the 


38  HORSE   FEEDING. 

food  elements  are  stored  in  the  concentrated  form,  such  as 
starch,  sugar,  fats,  and  the  albuminoids. 

Ensilage  is  attracting  almost  as  much  attention  from  horse 
breeders  as  it  is  from  dairymen.  This  is  not  so  much  because 
of  its  chemical  composition  —  it  will  be  seen  that  its  nutritive 
ratio  does  not  differ  materially  from  that  of  fodder  corn  —  as 
because  of  the  fact  that  it  bids  fair  to  supply  the  want  long  felt 
of  some  succulent  food  less  costly  and  more  useful  than  carrots 
or  other  roots  for  winter  feeding.  Within  only  a  few  years  has 
it  been  demonstrated  that  fodder  corn  stored  in  the  silo  makes 
a  winter  food  that  horses  both  profit  by  and  learn  to  be  fond 
of.  Like  most  other  animals  they  prefer  it  to  the  best  dry 
forage.  The  cost  of  preserving  a  given  crop  of  ensilage  does 
not  materially  differ  from  curing  the  same  crop  by  drying  in  a 
suitable  season,  but  crops  can  be  ensiloed  and  preserved  in 
seasons  when  they  would  be  lost  if  drying  was  attempted.  All 
things  considered,  Indian  corn  makes  the  most  economical  and 
satisfactory  ensilage  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  with 
a  crop  of  20  to  25  tons  to  the  acre  when  cut,  which  is  a  good 
average,  the  ensilage  may  be  made,  ready  for  use,  at  a  total  cost 
of  $2  a  ton,  and  for  less  under  favorable  circumstances.  An  acre 
of  corn  as  ensilage  will  weigh  four  times  as  much  as  the  dried 
fodder.  But  an  acre  of  corn,  field  cured,  stored  in  the  most 
compact  manner  possible,  will  occupy  a  space  eight  or  ten 
times  as  great  as  if  in  the  form  of  ensilage. 

It  is  claimed  that  any  crop  suitable  for  feeding  in  the  green 
state  will  make  good  ensilage.  Peas,  oats,  millet,  rye,  clover, 
sorghum,  and  other  forage  plants  have  strong  advocates  of 
their  merit  for  ensilage,  but  corn  undoubtedly  ranks  first.  It 
yields  less,  and  the  ensilage  will  be  more  acid  and  less  palatable. 

Good,  sweet  corn  is  just  as  safe  as  grass  to  feed  to  horses, 
and  in  cases  where  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  injurious  the 
effects  of  grass  would  have  been  the  same,  except  that  if  the 
ensilage  was  very  sour  it  might  have  produced  a  more  aggra- 
vated fermentation  than  grass.  But  all  experienced  horsemen 
know  that  they  must  be  cautious  when  horses  are  changed 
from  dry  food  to  grass.  If  the  horses  are  at  work,  in  the 
winter  season  the  ensilage  would  have  to  be  fed  in  smaller 
quantity. 


THE   VARIOUS   FOODS.  39 

Professor  W.  A.  Henry,  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  on  being  asked  if  corn  ensilage  was  injurious 
to  horses,  replied:  ''Every  now  and  then  we  read  of  horses 
dying  from  eating  corn  silage,  though  the  reports  are  not  as  fre- 
quent as  formerly.  Writers  seem  to  forget  that  a  great  many 
horses  have  died  after  eating  good  hay  and  clean  oats.  In  most 
of  the  cases  I  doubt  if  the  corn  silage  had  anj^^thlng  to  do  with 
the  animals'  dying.  Corn  silage  is  a  succulent  feed,  somewhat 
washy  in  its  nature,  and  is  only  suitable  for  horses  living 
under  certain  conditions.  Horses  not  hard  worked  and  brood 
mares  and  colts  can  be  fed  a  considerable  amount  daily  of  good 
silage  with  good  results.  Work  horses  can  be  fed  a  few 
pounds  a  day  as  a  relish,  but  no  large  quantity  should  be  given, 
just  as  one  would  not  expect  to  keep  them  thriving  in  summer 
time  on  green  cornstalks.  It  is  surprising  to  see  how  long  the 
predudice  against  using  corn-fodder  in  any  form  for  horses 
holds  out." 

An  English  correspondent  of  the  London  Live  Stock  Journal 
gives  the  following  testimony:  "This  winter  two  of  my  cart 
horses  have  had  three  parts  silage  and  one  part  hay  cut  up  into 
<jhaff;  they  have  had  no  corn  since  November;  they  are  in 
better  and  healthier  condition  than  many  of. my  neighbors' 
horses,  and  also  better  than  what  I  usually  have  them  at  this 
time  of  the  year.  I  feel  quite  sure  that  a  properly-made  silage 
of  a  good  crop  —  as  rye-grass  and  clover,  brown  and  sweet  — 
is  a  better  food  for  horses  than  the  same  crop  in  its  green  state, 
or  made  into  the  best  hay.  I  have  also  three  horses  doing  fast 
work  in  the  town  ;  they  have  three  parts  of  silage  and  one  part 
hay,  with  their  usual  amount  of  corn,  viz.  8  pounds  of  oats,  2 
pounds  of  maize,  and  2  pounds  beans  daily  for  each  horse.  I 
never  had  them  in  better  condition,  or  got  through  a  winter 
with  less  trouble,  not  one  of  the  horses  ever  having  had  a  day's 
or  an  hour's  illness  since  we  began  to  feed  largely  on  silage." 

Sorghum  is  a  fodder  that  can  hardly  yet  be  said  to  be  well- 
known,  but  its  use  is  spreading  and  in  some  portions  of  the 
country  it  has  begun  to  play  a  part  in  feeding.  It  was  less  than 
forty  years  ago,  indeed,  that  its  seeds  were  first  brought  to  this 
country,  and  prior  to  1851  it  had  been  almost  unknown  in 
Europe,  though  it  had  been  grown  from  time  immemorial  in 


40  HORSE  FEEDING. 

Africa  and  China.  It  is  a  grass  closely  allied  to  tlie  sugar- 
cane and  has  been  propagated  here  primarily  for  the  sake  of 
its  sugar,  but  it  is  now  coming  to  be  used  also  for  feeding.  It 
is  sown  in  drills  or  hills  like  Indian  corn,  and  its  mode  of  cul- 
tivation is  essentially  the  same.  It  will  grow  in  any  place 
where  maize  succeeds,  but  rarely  ripens  its  seed  north  of  the 
41st  degree.  The  investigations  of  the  Agricultural  Department 
show  that  as  a  crop  for  sugar  the  localities  in  which  it  can 
flourish  are  confined  to  the  semi-arid  region  of  the  country, 
notably  beginning  in  Central  Southern  Kansas  and  extending 
southward  indefinitely.  This  limitation,  however,  does  not  ap- 
pear to  apply  to  its  use  as  a  fodder  crop,  inasmuch  as  favorable 
reports  concerning  it  are  to  be  found  in  the  Agricultural  Reports 
as  coming  from  several  of  the  Northern  States.  For  instance, 
the  Ohio  report  of  the  Seed  Division  for  1S89  regarding  sor- 
ghum read  as  follows :  "  The  Early  Amber  ripened  evenly  and 
grew  to  the  height  of  8  feet.  Cows  eat  it  greedily,  and  given 
to  a  sick  horse  it  acted  like  a  toaic  and  invigorated  its  whole 
system." 

As  a  feed  stuff  sorghum  has  naturally  received  the  most 
attention  in  the  Southwest.  At  first  in  some  sections  the 
heads  alone  were  appreciated,  and  in  others  it  was  the  stalk 
that  was  supposed  to  make  up  the  value  of  the  plant.  Happily 
farmers  are  now  everywhere  grasping  the  fact  that  the  entire 
plant  is  valuable  for  forage.  As  material  for  silage  it  grew 
rapidly  in  favor,  not  only  because  of  its  large  yield  to  the  acre, 
but  also  because  of  its  richness  and  resultant  fattening  proper- 
ties. The  Texas  Experiment  Station  reports  that  as  a  hay  it  is 
palatable  and  readily  eaten  by  horses  and  cows,  and  when 
nearly  ripe,  or  ^uite  so,  by  hogs.  If  cut  and  fed  during  its 
growth  in  its  green  state,  it  becomes  a  most  valuable  adjunct  to 
corn. 

The  use  of  sorghum  seed  for  food  would  more  naturally  be 
discussed  with  that  of  cereals,  but  for  convenience  we  may 
give  here  the  conclusions  of  the  Agricultural  Department  re- 
garding it.  The  chief  objection  to  its  use  for  food,  says  the 
Report  of  1889,  has  been  on  the  supposition  that  it  contained 
tannin,  or  some  bitter  principle,  which  would  prove  injurious 
to  stock.    A  careful  examination  of  sorghum  seed  has  failed 


THE  A'ARIOUS   FOODS.  41 

to  discover  the  presence  of  tannin,  and  the  only  possible  injur- 
ious principle  which  it  can  contain  is  the  coloring  matter  of 
the  glumes.  A  careful  examination  of  this  coloring  matter  has 
been  made  and  its  composition  determined.  It  consists  of  33.5 
per  cent,  of  carbon,  6.6  per  cent  of  hydrogen,  7.2  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen,  and  52.5  per  cent,  of  oxygen.  Any  possible  ill  effects 
of  this  coloring  matter,  when  seed  is  used  for  food,  can  be  re- 
moved by  the  removal  of  the  glumes,  which  would  not  be  a 
difficult  mechanical  process.  Compared  with  maize  and  oats, 
the  seed  itself  is  shown  to  be  of  fair  quality,  equal  in  food 
value  to  either. 

Analyses  were  made  of  a  great  many  di£ferent  varieties  of 
seed,  but  the  chief  difference  in  the  varieties  is  shown  in  the 
percentage  of  coloring  matter  rather  than  in  the  composition  of 
the  seed  itself.  If  sorghum  should  be  raised  for  seed  alone, 
those  varieties  producing  a  pure  white  seed,  like  the  White 
Mammoth,  should  be  preferred  to  those  producing  highly  col- 
ored seeds,  like  the  Early  Amber  and  most  of  the  varieties  of 
Chinese  cane.  The  percentage  of  moisture  in  sorghum  seed  is 
about  10,  the  actual  percentage  found  being  9.59  as  a  mean  of 
48  analyses.  The  percentage-  of  albuminoids  was  found  to  be 
11.71;  of  fat,  3.35;  of  substances  soluble  in  ether,  0.50:  the 
soluble  carbohydrates,  3.37;  of  ash,  1.70;  of  indigestible  fibre, 
1.89;  of  starch  and  insoluble  digestible  carbohydrates,  68.03. 
These  analyses  will  compare  favorably,  in  regard  to  the  food 
value,  with  those  of  maize.  They  were  based  on  the  seeds 
from  which  the  glumes  had  been  removed. 

The  value  of  sorghum  seed  as  a  food  for  man  and  other  ani- 
mals is  found  to  be  fully  equal  to  that  of  maize  and  oats,  and 
but  little  inferior  to  wheat.  When  fed,  excepting  to  poultry, 
the  seed  should  be  either  ground  or  boiled ;  otherwise  much  of 
it  will  pass  the  digestive  organs  untouched. 

Furze,  otherwise  known  as  whin  or  gorse,  may  be  spoken  of 
here,  though  it  is  as  much  a  straw  as  clover,  to  which  it  is 
very  closely  allied  in  its  botanical  aspect.  This  shrub,  very 
common  in  Europe,  is  not  so  well  known  here,  but  one  variety 
of  it,  at  least,  has  become  thoroughly  established  on  many  of 
our  sterile  hills,  especially  in  the  East.  Abroad  it  has  been 
much  used  for  forage ;  and  in  some  parts  of  Wales,  chopped 


42  HORSE  FEEDING. 

and  bruised,  it  forms  the  principle  part  of  the  winter  fodder 
for  horses.  It  is  most  extensively  cultivated,  however,  in 
Flanders.  In  some  places  it  is  sown  to  yield  green  food  for 
sheep  and  other  animals,  but  it  is  preferable  to  other  crops 
only  on  dry  sandy  soils  where  they  could  not  be  advantage- 
ously cultivated.  As  might  be  expected  from  a  plant  akin  to 
the  clover,  its  percentage  of  albuminoids  is  high.  Its  nourish- 
ment is  available  when  it  iswell  crushed,  and  especially  when  it 
is  mixed  in  a  chaff  cutter  with  good  hay  or  oat  straw.  Unless 
so  mixed  it  is  too  heating  and  apt  to  cause  founder  in  horses  an  d 
inftamation  of  the  udder  in  cows.  It  gives  a  fine  coat  to  horses^ 
and  the  milk  taken  from  cows  fed  on  it  makes  butter  that  even 
in  winter  has  a  fine  rich  color.  You  can  chop  up  any  other 
forage  with  it,  and  a  little  mucilage  made  from  oil-cake  added 
will  very  much  improve  the  feeding.  The  principal  precaution 
to  be  taken  is  to  use  at  first  very  little  furze ,  increasing  th 
proportion  as  the  animal  gets  used  to  it.  When  they  get  used 
to  it,  horses  may  be  kept  all  winter  on  furze  without  hay,  pro- 
vided they  get  a  bran  mash  about  twice  a  week,  and  now  and 
then  a  little  green  feed  such  as  carrots  or  half-boiled  potatoes. 
But  if  the  horses  are  worked  they  should  also  get  oats.  Furze 
as  feeding  is  about  three-quarters  the  value  of  the  same  weight 
of  good  hay.  , 

Roots,  Tubers,  Etc.— Allied  to  forage  in  their  feeding 
uses  are  the  roots,  tubers,  etc.  Though  not  extensively  given 
to  horses,  it  is  worth  while  putting  here  for  reference  the  fol- 
lowing table  of  their  composition : — 

Water  Ash  Albumi-  Crude  Carbo-  Fat 

minoids   fiber  hydrates 

Sweet  potatoes 74.38  1.34  3.56  2.14  17.98  ^  .60 

Potatoes 78.49  .84    2.42  .68  17.51  .06 

Cabbage,  out'rleav's.89.86  1.35    1.83  2.98  3.54  .47 

Tusnips 92.40  .72   1.25  1.20  4.20  .23 

Pumpkins 92.27  .63    1.11  1.49  4.34  .16 

Mangolds....            ..94.41  1.09  1.03  1.00  2.40  .07 

Carrots .91.13  1.00  1.08  1.41  5.09  .29 

Okra .87.41  .74    1.99  3.42  6.04  .40 

Onions 89.26  .45    1.09  .65  8.31  .24 

Tomatoes 91.26  .73    1.00  .70  5.84  .47 

String  beans 83.46  .83   2.75  2.58  10.04  .34 

Apples,  sweet 77.30  .46     .50  1.27  19.96  .41 


THE  VARIOUS   FOODS.  43 

It  has  not  been  thought  desirable  as  yet  to  go  into  the  exten- 
sive experiments  needed  to  determine  the  digestible  percent- 
ages of  most  of  these  foods,  and  indeed  they  do  not  usually 
play  an  important  enough  part  to  demand  it.  Potatoes,  how- 
ever, are  much  used  in  certain  regions,  and  it  may  be  desirable 
to  know  that  they  contain  16.56  per  cent,  of  digestible  dry  mat- 
ter; 1,07  per  cent,  of  digestible  albuminoids;  15.91  per  cent. 
of  digestible  carbohydrates ;  and  0.08  per  cent,  of  digestible 
fat;  giving  the  nutritrive  ratio,  1 :15.  If  potatoes  are  fed  raw 
and  in  large  quantities,  they  often  produce  indigestion.  Their 
digestibility  is  favored  by  steaming  or  boiling.  They  possess, 
in  common  with  other  roots,  slight  laxative  qualities.  As  they 
contain  much  water,  it  will  be  prudent  when  feeding  them  to 
horses  to  any  extent  to  curtail  the  supply  of  water  somewhat. 
Professor  Low  claimed  that  15  lbs.  of  potatatoes  would  yield 
as  much  nourishment  as  4^^  lbs.  of  oats ;  Von  Thayer  asserted 
that  three  bushels  are  equal  to  112  lbs.  of  hay;  and  Curwen, 
who  tried  potatoes  extensively  in  the  feeding  of  horses,  «aid 
that  an  acre  goes  as  far  as  four  acres  of  hay.  Recent  calcula- 
tions of  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  how- 
ever, show  that  for  general  stock-breeding  purposes  potatoes 
have  a  food  value  of  only  $5.57  a  ton,  and  a  fertilizing  value  of 
^1.66  a  ton,  making  a  total  of  $7.23,  so  that  whenever  they  sell 
at  $10  a  ton,  the  market  value  given  in  this  calculation,  it  is 
manifestly  poor  economy  to  feed  them  for  stock  unless  some 
other  considerations  prevail,  such  as  their  influence  on  health 
and  condition.  Some  who  have  tried  them,  however,  say  that 
lor  feeding  to  horses  the  small  potatoes  are  about  as  good  as 
the  merchantable  ones,  and  of  course  it  often  happens  that  the 
small  ones  can  be  procured  at  very  low  prices.  They  are  said 
to  put  a  polish  on  the  coats  of  horses  and  neat  cattle  such  as 
is  given  by  few  other  foods. 

Carrots,  in  spite  of  being  nine-tenths  water,  have  a  consider- 
able food  value,  or  perhaps  it  would  be  better  to  say  medicinal 
value.  In  fact,  though  useful  at  any  time  as  a  change  of  diet, 
they  are  most  excellent  during  sickness.  Their  effect  is  to  im- 
prove the  appetite  and  increase  slightly  the  action  of  the  bow- 
els and  kidneys.  They  possess  also  certain  alterative  quali- 
ties.   When  they  are  fed  to  horses  the  coat  becomes  smooth 


44  HORSE   FEEDING. 

and  glossy.  Some  veterinary  writers  claim  that  chronic  cough  i 
is  cured  by  giving  carrots  for  some  time.  Stewart  in  his  "  Sta-  • 
ble  Economy  "  said :  "  They  form  a  good  substitute  for  grass, , 
and  an  excellent  alterative  for  horses  out  of  condition.  To » 
sick  and  idle  horses  they  render  corn  unnecessary.  They  are  t 
beneficial  in  all  chronic  diseases  connected  with  breathing  and  l| 
have  a  marked  influence  upon  chronic  cough  and  broken  wind.  ,i 
They  are  serviceable  in  diseases  of  the  skin,  and  in  combination  i! 
with  oats  they  restore  a  work  horse  much  sooner  than  oats  <| 
alone."  These  characteristics  make  it  natural  that  in  the( 
spring,  when  horses  cannot  be  turned  out  to  grass,  they  should  i 
then  be  fed  a  few  at  a  time,  two  or  three  times  a  week.  Horses  i 
are  very  fond  of  them,  liking  them  best  when  they  are  sliced  ( 
and  mixed  with  cut  hay.  Used  purely  as  food  their  composi-  t 
tion  shows  them  to  have  a  food  value  of  $2.70  a  ton,  and  a  fer-  i 
tilizing  value  of  $0.98,  a  total  of  $3.68,  being  93  per  cent,  ofjl 
their  cost,  if  that  be  $4  a  ton. 

Feek,  the  trainer,  thinks  carrots  are  of  "  too  refrigerating  a  ■ 
nature  to  feed  in  cold  weather."  He  doesn't  like  to  feed  them  J 
or  any  other  roots  when  i^  is  freezing. 

Parsnips  have  nearly  the  same  composition  as  carrots,  except  { 
that  they  contain  »n  even  larger  percentage  of  water.  In  Eng-  \ 
land  and  France  they  are  fed  in  the  same  way  as  carrots. 

Sweedish  turnips  are  much  fed  to  horses  in  Scotland,  but  are  { 
comparatively  little  known  or  used  as  an  article  of  diet  for  the  » 
horse  in  the  Southern  counties  of  England  or  in  America. 
They  are  said  to  be  not  only  easy  of  digestion  in  themselves,  ,i 
but  also  to  cause  cut  straw  to  be  relished  by  farm  horses.'  \ 
They  fatten  a  horse  quickly,  producing  a  smooth  glossy  coat  j 
and  a  loose  skin.  They  are  best  given  once  a  day,  boiled  .\ 
along  with  barley  and  a  little  oil-meal,  and  preferably  at  night  ;: 
Turnips  are  an  economical  food,  as  their  composition  gives  't 
then  a  general  food  value  of  $1.83  a  ton  and  a  fertilizing  value  < 
of  $0.85  a  ton,  a  total  of  $2.68,  which  is  68  cents  above  the  ij 
market  value  set  by  the  New  York  Station  table. 

Beets,  apples,  celery,  cabbage,  squashes,  etc.,  are  some-  I 
times  fed,  and  are  as  welcome  to  the  horse  as  sauces  are  to  the  i 
man.  But  they  should  be  given  as  condiments  rather  than  as  i 
rations.    Apples  are  particularly  useful  for  young  or  enfeebled  |i 


THE  VARIOUS   FOODS.  45 

horses  in  the  early  spring,  and  as  a  corrective  at  any  season 
sour  apples  have  a  medicinal  value  not  to  be  despised.  All  the 
succulent  foods  are  beneficial  for  mixing  with  the  dry  foods, 
especially  when  the  change  is  made  from  pasture  to  barn,  mak- 
ing that  change  less  abrupt  and  dangerous.  The  practice  of 
European  stock  raisers,  with  whom  the  matter  of  root  supply 
has  nearly  as  much  weight  as  that  of  grain  and  dry  forage, 
suggests  that  perhaps  we  are  not  as  thoughtful  in  this  respect 
as  we  should  be. 

A  Washington  farmer  reports  that  his  horses  running  in  a 
field  got  at  a  pile  of  onions  and  ate  about  300  lbs.  Since  then 
they  seem  to  eat  an  onion  as  readily  as  a  carrot.  The  ouions 
grown  there,  however,  are  very  mild  and  sweet.  The  fact 
that  the  horses  a|e  them  is  the  best  proof  that  they  were  agree- 
able, and  there  appears  no  reason  why  they  should  not  occa- 
sionally be  fed. 

An  Iowa  farmer  who  has  experimented  with  artichokes  says : 
"  For  many  years  I  have  grown  the  Brazilian  and  large  French 
artichokes  for  hogs..  As  swine  harvest  the  tubers  and  save 
labor,  I  have  never  gathered  them  to  feed  to  other  stock.  But 
having  some  on  hand  last  spring  after  planting  a  new  lot,  I  let 
a  neighbor  have  them  to  feed  to  a  valuable  stallion  that  seemed 
a  trifle  out  of  condition.  The  horse  ate  them  readily,  and  beside 
an  excellent  efiect  as  food  and  improving  his  coat  and  general 
health,  it  was  noted  that  he  passed  worms  freely,  In  a  short 
time  he  was  in  fine  condition.  Although  the  effect  on  swine 
has  many  times  been  similar,  it  was  accepted  as  an  ordinary 
fact.  This  experiment  would  indicate  that  for  horses,  under 
like  circumstances,  this  tuber  would  be  quite  as  valuable.  The 
labor  of  growing  a  quarter  of  an  acre  for  use  in  the  horse  barn 
would  be  a  small  matter,  and  the  ease  with  which  the  large 
variety  can  be  gathered  and  stored  (  freezing  is  no  damage) 
commend  the  matter  as  worthy  fair  trial.  They  may  be  left  in 
the  ground  until  the  frost  is  out,  and  would  f urnisn  a  soft  bite 
to  the  horses,  brood  mares,  and  colts,  just  when  needed,  and  at 
one-tenth  the  cost  of  growing  and  storing  the  same  weight  of 
carrots." 

Orain.  —  Grain,  everybody  knows,  is  the  staple  food  of  the 
horse,  just  as  in  the  form  of  bread  it  is  the  staple  food  of  man. 


46  HORSE   FEEDING. 

J 

The  following  table  shows  the  composition  of  the  various  kinds : 
Water  Ash  Album-  Crude  Carbohy-  Fat 
inoids     fiber    drates 

Oats 10.94    2.97  11.38        9.85     60.05  4.81 

Corn 10.51     1.54  10.55        2.09     69.85  5.45 

Wheat 10.54    1.86  11.80        1.80     71.89  2.11 

Buckwheat 12  55     2.00   10.00        8.70     64. .50  2.25 

Barley 10.92    2.38  12.39        2.57     69.88  1.86 

The  digestible  percentages  of  three  of  these  (  remember  the 

figures  are  equivalent  to  the  number  of  pounds  of  digestible  j 

matter  in  100  pounds  of  food  )  have  been  found  to  be :  i 

Albu-    Crude    Carbo-    Fat    Nutri-      | 

mi-         fiber      hy-  tive  j 

noids  drates  ratio         ! 

Oats 8.76        1.67        44.44       3.94    1:6.4        I 

Corn 8.44        2.09        60.77       2.29    1:8.1        \ 

Barley 9.91        2.57        60.^0       0.78    1:6.6        < 

A  glance  suffices  to  show  that  oats  and  barley  contain  the  \ 
more  protein,  i.  e.  albuminoids,  nitrogenous  matter;  and  that  ,| 
corn  excels  in  carbohydrates,  the  fat-makers.  In  fat  itself,  " 
note  that  oats  lead  with  barley  making  a  very  small  showing.  ! 
To  be  sure,  barley  leads  in  percentage  of  digestible  crude  fiber,  i 
but  according  to  the  latest  investigations  crude  fiber  does  not  j 
seem  to  have  any  value  for  horses  anyway.  j 

The  conclusion  from  the  figures  harmonizes  with  that  from  '| 
experience  to  convince  beyond  a  doubt  that  oats  combine  in  i 
best  proportions  the  ingredients  necessary  for  the  complete  ; 
nutrition  of  the  equine  body ;  that  corn  is  superior  to  oats  for 
fattening ;  and  that  barley  is  better  yet  for  this  purpose.  ;: 

The  value  of  the  grains,  computed  theoretically  and  wholly  j 
on  the  basis  of  the  commercial  value  of  their  digestible  ele-  j 
ments,  is  given  by  the  New  York  Experiment  Station  as  fol-  | 
lows :—  j 

Market  Food       Fertiliz-    Total      Total  \ 

value  value      ing  value  value      value  j 

per  ton  per  ton  per  ton     per  ton  per  cent.  ' 

cost  j 

Corn $25.00  $22.22     $6.22         $28.44      114. 

Oats 35.00  21.89       658  28.47        82. 

Rye 30.00  21.04       6.80           27.84        93.  j 

Buckwheat .27.00  20.67       5.11           25.78        96.  I 

Barley 27.00  20.68       6.07           26.75        99.  \ 


THE  VARIOUS   FOODS.  47 

Oats.— Oats  are  the  favorite  food  for  horses  because  of  sev- 
eral qualities.  They  contain  more  nitrogenous  matter  than 
the  other  grains  ;  their  nutrients  are  combined  in  the  best  ratio ; 
they  are  more  digestible,  partly  because  the  fibrous  husk  in 
which  the  grain  is  enclosed  serves  to  split  up  the  mass  in  the 
stomach  and  expose  it  tjo  the  action  of  the  digestive  fluids ;  aud 
common  belief  credits  them  with  holding  a  peculiar  compound 
that  is  gently  stimulating  to  the  nervous  system.  This  belief, 
however,  has  not  as  yet  scientific  basis  enough  to  warrant  the 
general  acceptance  it  has  met.  Although  early  investigators 
found  what  they  thought  an  albuminoid  peculiar  to  the  oat  grain 
which  they  named  avenine,  later  studies  with  superior  methods 
have  not  confirmed  the  discovery  and  we  have  not  yet  any  conclu- 
sive evidence  that  the  oat  kernel  contains  any  characteristic 
nitrogenous  compounds  not  to  be  found  in  other  grains.  Per- 
haps it  does  contain  avenine,  and  perhaps  avenine  is  a  nerve 
stimulant,  but  for  neither  is  there  yet  more  proof  than  a  some- 
what generally  accepted  opinion,  which  is  here  cited  for  what 
it  is  worth. 

There  are  oats  and  oats.    And  there  are  different  ways  to 

feed  them. 

Good  oats  are  clean,  hard,  dry,  sweet,  heavy,  plump,  full  of 
flour,  and  rattle  like  shot.  They  have  a  clear  and  almost 
metalic  lustre.  Each  oat  in  a  well-grown  sample  is  of  nearly 
the  same  size.  There  are  but  few  small  or  imperfect  grains. 
The  hard  pressure  of  the  nail  on  an  oat  should  leave  little  or  no 
mark.  The  kernel,  when  pressed  between  the  teeth,  should 
clip  rather  than  tear. 

The  skin  should  be  thin.  The  size  of  the  kernel  will  be  less 
in  proportion  as  the  skin  is  thick.  Bearded  oats  must  have  an 
excess  of  husk.  Oats  are  not  necessarily  bad  because  they  are 
thick-skinned  or  bearded ;  but  they  must  contain  a  less  amount 
of  flour  per  bushel  than  thin-skinned  oats  without  beards. 

The  weight  is  a  very  important  matter.  Thirty-two  pounds 
constitute  a  legal  bushel,  but  good  samples  weigh  much  more, 
running  sometimes  as  high  as  44  pounds  to  the  measured 
bushel.  Six  quarts  of  the  heaviest  will  weigh  as  much  as  a 
peck  of  the  lightest,  and  therefore  contain  almost  a  third  more 
nutriment,  quart  for  quart.    Therefore  leaving  out  of  account 


48  HORSE  FEEDING. 

the  extra  tax  on  the  horse's  digestive  powers  by  the  oats  that 
have  much  bulk  in  proportion  to  their  nutritive  powers,  it  is 
evidently  a  matter  of  no  small  economy  to  buy  the  heavier 
grainr. 

In  buying  oats  by  weight  without  the  use  of  scales  insist 
that  the  measure  be  filled  quickly.  A  shrewd,  tricky  dealer 
will  by  slowly  filling  and  shaking  the  measure,  apparently  ac- 
cidentally, make  oats  weigh  some  two  or  three  pounds  more  to 
the  bushel  than  is  their  average  weight. 
Short,  plump  oats  are  preferable  to  large,  long  grains. 
In  color  oats  are  white,  black,  or  gray.  Some  say  white  oats 
have  the  thinner  skin ;  others,  the  black.  It  really  signifies 
little  what  the  color  is,  unless  it  has  been  produced  by  bleach- 
ing. It  is  not  rare  to  hear  advice  against  feeding  oats  bleached 
by  kiln-drying,  and  the  advice  is  sound  if  it  is  certain  or  possible 
that  the  oats  have  been  kiln-dried  because  they  were  previously 
damaged.  No  doubt  such  oats  have  produced  inflammation  of 
the  bladder  and  of  the  eyes,  and  mangy^ffections  of  the  skin, 
bat  the  blame  is  not  necessarily  to  be  laid  at  the  door  of  kiln- 
dryiug.  As  Youatt  says,  there  is  no  fear  from  the  simple  dry- 
ing, if  the  grain  was  good  when  it  was  put  in  the  kiln.  If  any 
doubt  exists  as  to  whether  oats  have  been  so  treated,  it  may 
be  easily  set  at  rest  by  rubbing  some  of  the  questionable  grains 
between  the  palms  of  the  hands,  when  the  smell  of  the  sulphur 
used  in  the  kiln  to  bleach  them  will  be  noticeable  on  the  hands 
if  the  oats  have  been  kiln-dried.  Such  oats,  even  if  not 
bleached,  shrink  unduly  from  the  points  of  the  husks,  and  hive 
a  brown  look  at  the  points,  and  so  they  can  be  readily 
detected. 

The  age  of  oats  is  a  very  important  consideration.  New  oats 
are  indigestible  and  liable  to  give  colic.  They  ought  never  to 
be  fed  when  less  than  three  months  old,  and  are  at  theu-  best 
when  a  year  old.  After  that,  danger  begins  again,  for  oats 
that  have  sprouted  or  fermented  are  decidedly  injurious,  and 
mouldy  oats  like  mouldy  hay  and  straw,  not  only  produce  serious 
digestive  disorders,  but  have  been  the  undoubted  cause  of  out- 
breaks of  that  dread  disease,  known  variously  as  cerebro-spinal 
meningitis,  putrid  sore  throat,  or  choking  distemper,  character- 
ized by  inability  to  eat  or  drink,  sudden  paralysis,  and  death. 


THE  VARIOUS   FOODS.  49 

To  distinguish  between  new  and  old  oats  one  must  rely- 
mainly  on  the  smell.  The  new  have  a  fresh,  earthly  odor  that 
is  wanting  in  the  old.  To  be  sure,  old  oats  newly  thrashed  out 
may  smell  fresh,  but  they  lack  the  earthy  odor.  As  a  rule, 
however,  they  smell  rather  musty,  and  frequently  of  rats. 

In  new  oats  the  outside  of  the  husk  in  well  saved  samples  is 
bright  and  shining,  having  almost  a  glazed  appearance,  espec- 
ially in  the  black  variety.  In  old  oats  this  glazing  is  lost. 
The  outside,  though  it  may  be  perfectly  clean,  is  dim,  and  the 
ends  of  the  husks  in  white  oats,  and  the  point  of  the  kernel  in 
both  white  and  black  oats,  are  always  a  little  darkened.  Badly 
saved  new  oats  may  in  these  respects  resemble  old  oats ;  but 
in  such  cases  they  will  probably  be  distinguished  by  their  soft- 
ness. 

The  taste  of  the  new  oat  is  fresh  and  somewhat  milky,  and 
its  flour,  when  moistened  in  the  mouth,  readily  adheres  to- 
gether. The  taste  of  the  old  oat  is  slightly  bitter.  In  the 
mouth  the  flour  feels  dry,  and  is  not  easily  moistened.  About 
the  flour  from  the  new  oat  there  is  a  certain  degree  of  juiciness, 
sweetness,  and  milkiness.  In  very  dry  seasons  these  distinc- 
tions are  less  observable  than  in  ordinary  years. 

New  oats  as  a  general  rule  are  softer  than  old;  but  here 
again  the  season,  the  state  of  the  weather  for  some  time  pre- 
ceding the  samples'  coming  to  market,  and  the  dampness  per- 
haps of  the  place  in  which  they  have  been  stored,  may  cause 
old  oats  to  handle  as  soft  as  new.  On  the  other  hand,  in  very 
fine  seasons  new  oats  may  come  to  the  market  almost  as  dry 
and  hard  as  old  in  average  years. 

The  skin  of  the  kernel  of  a  new  oat  is  covered  with  a  very 
fine  prickly  down  composed  of  very  minute  hairs.  In  the  old 
oat  the  kernel  appears  and  feels  more  smooth.  If  the  husks  are 
stripped  ofl",  this  distinction  will  be  quite  perceptible  to  the 
palate  in  chewing  a  few  grains  of  each. 

The  best  oats  are  those  that  are  cut  about  one  week  before 
being  ripe.  Not  only  is  the  grain  richer  at  this  time  in  nutri- 
tive materials,  but  also  there  is  less  waste  from  "  scattering" 
than  when  it  is  left  to  become  dead  ripe. 

As  to  whether  oats  should  be  fed  whole  or  crushed,  there  is 
much  difference  of  opinion.    The  truth  seems  to  be  that  the 


50  HORSE  FEEDING. 

right  way  to  feed  depends  upon  circumstances.  To  give 
crushed  oats  to  horses  whose  teeth  permit  of  completely  crush- 
ing the  whole  seed  is  not  to  be  advised,  but  it  is  always  advis- 
able with  horses  that  eat  greedily.  Under  these  conditions  it 
will  be  advantageous  to  mix  the  oats  with  chopped  straw  in  a 
moderate  proportion.  By  this  means  the  horse  is  kept  from 
blowing  the  chop  away  by  breathing  on  it  from  above,  and 
from  picking  out  the  grain  in  order  to  eat  it  without  the  straw. 
Crushed  oats  are  also  preferable  for  h  es  having  a  defective 
dentition,  or  when  the  digestion  is  weak  and  the  stomach  does 
not  decompose  and  dissolve  whole  oats  satisfactorily.  Crushed 
oats  are  also  to  be  recommended  for  young  foals  that  have  not 
yet  all  their  teeth ;  also  for  horses  whose  teeth  are  worn  out 
and  for  those  whose  teeth  are  damaged  or  decayed.  On  the 
other  hand,  with  healthy  horses,  having  teeth  capable  of  per- 
fectly crushing  the  whole  oats,  experience  demonstrates  that 
oats  are  invariably  more  serviceable  when  given  whole  than 
they  are  when  crushed. 

A  Weston  farmer  who  has  tried  saving  the  trouble  of  even 
so  much  as  separating  oats  from  the  straw,  reports :  "Last 
Winter,  having  a  good  stock  of  young  Percherons  f rom  one  to 
four  years  old,  I  did  not  thresh  my  oats  but  fed  them  to  the 
stock  in  tight  mangers  —  one  medium  sized  sheaf  to  each  horse 
and  four  ears  of  corn  twice  a  day.  They  did  splendidly ;  I 
never  wintered  horses  so  cheaply.  This  winter  I  am  doing  the 
same  with  the  same  success.  I  cut  the  oats  when  the  straw  is  a 
little  green,  so  it  is  hay,  and  thus  save  the  expense  of  thresh- 
ings which  is  no  small  item." 

The  average  h^rse  should  be  fed  about  12  quarts  of  oats  a 
day,  or  about  16  pounds  if  the  oats  weigh  40  pounds  to  the 
bushel.  Ten  quarts  make  a  small  ration  if  the  horse  is  1000  to 
1100  pounds  weight  and  is  used  much.  The  English  practice 
favors  about  12  pounds  for  a  harness  horse  in  regular  work. 
The  allowance  for  race-horses  in  training  at  Newmarket  is  from 
14  to  16  pounds  a  day. 

Corn. — The  grain  that  all  Americans  know  as  "  corn  "  and 
that  all  Englishmen  call  "  maize,"  is  a  valuable  horse  food 
when  rightly  used.  Our  forefathers  adopted  it  from  the  Indians 
as  the  national  food  for  both  man  and  beast,  and  to  no  other 


THE  VARIOUS   FOODS.  51 

one  cereal  do  we  owe  so  much.  When  we  think  of  the  vast  corn 
crop  and  observe  its  use  everywhere  on  the  farm  and  in  the 
home,  it  is  hard  for  us  to  realize  that  our  European  ancesters 
had  never  seen  an  ear  of  it,  that  for  centuries  they  had  relied 
on  the  small  grains,  oats,  wheat,  barley,  and  that  even  to-day 
maize  is  almost  unknown  in  many  parts  of  Europe  and  little 
used  anywhere. 

^^e  learned  early  how  to  use  it.  They  don't  understand  it 
yet. 

That  is  why  it  is  possible  for  an  English  writer  on  the 
horse  to  say:  ''  While  there  are  so  many  other  economical  ar- 
ticles of  feed  to  turn  to,  it  will  not  be  found  worth  while  to 
resort  to  the  use  of  maize  for  horses,  however  useful  the  grain 
may  have  been  found  in  the  case  of  the  other  animals  of  the 
farmyard."  Or  for  another  to  write :  "-It  is  over-strong  as 
food  for  a  gentleman's  stable."  But  it  is  only  fair  to  note  that 
its  use  is  spreading  abroad,  and  some  day  no  doubt  there  will 
be  a  demand  for  it  from  Europe  proportionate  to  the  demand 
here  for  home  consumption. 

The  failure  of  foreigners  to  appreciate  Indian  corn  does  not 
surprise  us  so  much  when  we  observe  how  many  of  our  own  peo- 
ple are  even  yet  ignorant  of  its  proper  use.  When  we  find  an 
American  writing  that  "  corn  is  the  bane  of  the  farm  horse,  as 
it  is  also  of  the  horse  doing  any  other  sort  of  work,"  we  must 
conclude  that  our  cousins  beyond  the  water  are  not  the  only 
people  who  deserve  pity  and  need  education. 

Corn  is  indeed  the  bane  of  the  farm  horse  or  any  other  horse, 
when  injudiciously  fed,  but  rightly  fed  it  is  one  of  the  most 
economical  and  generally  useful  of  foods. 

To  use  corn  properly,  it  must  be  understood  that  corn  is  a 
fattener,  a  fuel  provider,  and  not  primarily  a  muscle  maker. 
It  is  not  true,  however,  that  it  has  none  of  the  elements  which 
go  to  make  strength  of  muscle.  Keference  to  the  table  of 
grain  analyses  will  show  that  in  every  100  pounds  of  corn, 
there  are  8.44  pounds  of  digestible  albuminoids,  which  is  less 
than  a  quarter  of  a  ponnd  below  the  showing  made  by  oats. 
The  important  difference  between  the  two  is  not  that  corn  con- 
tains less  nitrogenous  matter  than  oats,  but  that  it  con- 
tains more    carbohydrates,  IQ^    pounds    more  in  the  hun- 


52  HORSE  FEEDING. 

dred.     The  natural  inference  is  that  corn  contains  more  nu- 
tritive matter  than  oats,  and  so. indeed  it    does,  but  unfortu- 
nately its  nutritive  elements  are  not  found  combined  in  so 
useful  a  proportion.    That  is  why  oats  are  a  better  all-round 
feed,  taking  into  account  all  sorts  of  horses  and  all  sorts  of 
conditions.    For  some   horses,  nevertheless,  and   for    many 
horses  under  some  conditions,  corn  is  more  useful  and  econom- 
ical.   It  is  clear  that  corn  can  be  fed  with  advantage  to  horses 
doing  little  or  no  work,  and  therefore  requiring  the  fuel  carbo- 
hydrates rather  than  the  strength  giving  protein.    It  is  like-  I 
wise  clear  that  corn  is  a  better  food  in  winter  than  in  summer,  j 
because  more  heat  is  needed  in  winter.    Equally  certain  is  it  .j 
that  corn  properly  mixed  with  foods  containing  an  excess  of  ^ 
nitrogen,  will  make  a  ration  the  equal  of  oats,  leaving  out  the  i 
question  of  digestibility.  i 

The  fact  is,  however,  that  corn  is  not  as  generally  digestible  ! 
as  oats  are.  Experience  shows  that  while  one  horse  will  do  i 
full  work  on  corn,  eating  it  three  times  a  day,  and  continuing 
this  through  the  year,  regardless  of  the  weather,  he  may  have  ; 
a  mate  whose  digestion  will  be  greatly  disturbed  by  being  fed  j 
two  or  three  rations  of  corn.  There  are,  indeed,  very  few  j 
horses  whose  stomachs  can  accommodate  themselves  quickly  ! 
to  corn  when  they  have  been  unaccustomed  to  it,  and  therefore  j 
it  is  never  safe  to  begin  feeding  corn  to  horses  in  large  quanti-  \ 
ties.  And  in  continuing  its  use,  even  mixed  with  other  foods,  ; 
the  constitutional  characteristics  of  the  horse's  digestive  organs  ,; 
as  demonstrated  by  the  results  of  feeding  corn,  must  be  ob-  li 
served  and  regarded.  | 

The  chemical  nature  of  corn  makes  it  unfit  as  an  exclusive  j 
food  for  young  and  growing  horses.  They  need  an  excess  of 
nitrogenous,  muscle-making  food,  rather  than  of  a  fattening 
food  like  corn,  and  futhermore  corn  is  deficient  in  the  salts 
needed  for  the  growth  of  bone.  As  Professor  Stewart  says, 
*'  the  great  objection  to  Western  and  Southern  horses  has  been 
the  fact  that  they  have  been  grown  too  largely  upon  corn, 
which  is  our  highest  type  of  fattening  food,  but  the  poorest 
food  to  develop  young  animals,  because  it  has  very  little  of  the 
element  of  bones,  and  horses  fed  too  freely  upon  corn  have 
tender  feet  and  cannot  stand  city  pavements  or  hard  roads.  One 


THE  VARIOUS   FOODS.  53 

pound  of  wheat  bran  contains  as  much  bone  material  as  four 
pounds  of  corn." 

Corn  is  fed  whole,  on  or  off  the  cob;  coarsely  ground, 
"  cracked,"  with  or  without  the  cob;  or  finely  ground,  in  the 
shape  of  corn  meal,  again  with  or  without  the  cob. 

The  value  of  the  cob  is  a  debated  question.  That  it  has  nu- 
tritive properties,  is,  however,  beyond  dispute.  Director 
Goessmann  of  the  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station,  has  said 
of  it:  "The  composition  of  the  cob  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
corn  stalk,  and  the  relatively  large  per  cent,  of  the  soluble  con 
stituents  places  corn  cobs  equal  in  point  of  nutritive  value  to 
potatoes,  and  many  of  our  grains,  and  they  will  compare  most 
favorably  with  the  straw  of  most  of  our  winter  and  summer 
grain."  Other  authorities  have  likened  its  value  to  that  of  sec- 
ond grade  upland  hay.  Professor  Groessmann  further  writes  : 
"  I  have  recommended  the  grinding  of  kernel  and  cob  together 
for  fine  or  grain  feed  rations,  believing  even  that  its  addition  to 
corn-meal  favors  the  digestion  of  the  corn  on  account  of  its 
fibrous,  mechanical  condition."  But  he  admits  that  thus  far 
he  has  not  experimented  in  its  use  by  horses. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  urged  that  the  feeding  value  of  such 
food,  as  estimated  by  its  chemical  constituents,  is  not  a  safe 
guide,  and  that  in  fact  horses  do  not  easily  digest  the  cob, 
whether  eaten  whole  or  ground.  As  to  its  use  one  horseman 
gives  his  experience  as  follows:"  I  had  a  seven-year-old 
mare,  that  last  fall  was  as  smooth  as  a  piece  of  new  satin.  I 
began  to  feed  her  cob  meal  and  corn  on  the  ear,  she  eating  the 
cob  every  time.  In  less  than  a  week  every  hair  stood  up 
straight  and  soon  I  could  not  drive  her  five  miles  without  her 
scouring  badly.  She  also  began  to  grow  poor  and  lost  her  en- 
ergy and  looked  discouraged  and  out  of  sorts.  I  stopped  the 
cob  meal  short  off  and  began  to  give  her  three  quarts,  at  a  feed 
three  times  a  day,  of  oats  and  corn  ground  together.  In  a  lit- 
tle while  she  could  shake  her  head  and  play  a  little  and  in  a 
few  weeks  was  all  right  again,  but  her  coat  looks  very  bad. 
About  this  time  a  neighbor  remarked  that  there  was  nothing 
like  new  corn  on  the  cob  to  give  a  horse  a  good  coat  and  keep 
him  in  good  condition.  He  began  to  feed  it  to  a  nice  little  bay 
horse  with  an  unusually  thick,  bowed  up  neck.    It  was  only  a 


M  HORSE  FEEDING. 

short  time  till  the  horse  looked  worse  than  mine.  His  coati 
was  going  in  every  direction  and  the  proud  arch  of  the  necldi 
was  all  gone.  I  think  in  each  case  it  was  the  cob  that  did  thai 
mischief." 

Whole  corn  on  the  cob  is  commonly  and  beneficially  given  tofl 
liorses  afflicted  with  "  lampas."  If  it  is  old  and  is  to  be  fed  im 
this  manner,  it  ought  to  be  soaked  in  pure,  clean  water  for  tena 
or  twelve  hours. 

Dr.  C.  E.  Page  advises  a  trial  of  corn  on  the  cob  for  cribbing^ 
liorses.  "This  gives  them,"  he  says,  "honest  gnawing  andJ 
]ess  excuse,  need,  or  desire  for  that  which  works  mischief.l 
Besides,  this  form  of  diet  is  in  other  ways  good  for  whatever! 
ails  them.  It  is  eaten  slowly,  masticated  thoroughly,  audi 
will,  therefore,  be  more  perfectly  digested." 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  however,  it  cannot  be  saidl 
that  experience  or  experiment  yet  encourage  the  regular  feed-^ 
ing  of  corn  and  cob,  whole  or  ground. 

Not  so  much  caution  is  to  be  expressed  about  feeding  whole i 
corn  off  the  cob,  but  it  is  clearly  poor  economy  to  use  it  in  or-« 
der  to  save  the  cost  of  grinding.  The  trouble  is  that  whole i 
corn  is  rarely  masticated  enough  for  digestion,  and  therefore! 
it  frequently  acts  as  an  irritant  to  the  bowels,  causing  colic. 

Cracked  or  coarsely  ground  corn  is  the  least  dangerous  as* 
an  independent  food.  When  finely  ground,  in  the  form  of  I 
corn-meal,  it  should  be  mixed  with  other  food.  Corn-meal  i 
fed  by  itself  becomes  in  the  stomach  a  plastic,  adhesive  mass, , 
nearly  impenetrable  to  the  gastric  juice,  and  frequently  cans-- 
ing  severe  and  sometimes  fatal  colic.  Even  when  mixed  withi 
ground  oats,  it  is  not  a  safe  food,  the  mixture  making  tooi 
dense  a  mass  in  the  stomach.  Coarser  materials  should  be « 
used  ior  admixture,  such  as  cut  hay  or  cut  straw.  It  is  wise  i 
to  moisten  the  hay  so  that  the  meal  will  stick  to  it.  But  who-.- 
ever  ventures  to  feed  meal  by  itself,  would  better  feed  it  dry/ 
than  wet,  because  a  horse  can  swallow  wet  meal  after  very 
little  mastication,  but  dry  meal  he  must  first  moisten  withi 
saliva,  and  saliva  aids  digestion.  \. 

Barley. — Barley  is  not  a  common  horse  food  in  America,  ji 
and  by  far  the  greater  part  of  our  horses  have  never  tasted  it,  ^ 
though  it  is  the  principal  article  in  the  diet  of  horses  of  manyi 


THE   VARIOUS   FOODS.  OJ> 

other  parts  of  the  world.  The  Arabs  feed  their  horses  largely 
OQ  barley;  the  French  in  Algeria  have  adopted  from  them  the 
same  practice  ;  and  mixed  with  other  materials  it  is  much  used 
on  the  Continent  of  Europe.  In  this  country,  too,  wherever  it 
has  been  used  by  skilled  feeders,  it  has  in  the  main  been  mixed 
with  something  else,  barley  and  oats  ground  together  having 
been  one  of  the  rations  that  has  found  favor. 

A  glance  at  the  table  of  grain  analyses  before  given  will 
show  that  barley  contains  more  digestible  matter  to  the  hun- 
dred-weight than  either  corn  or  oats  ;  that  in  percentage  of  di- 
gestible carbohydrates  it  is  almost  exactly  equal  to  corn,  and 
yet  contains  nitrogenous  matter  enough  to  make  its  nutritive 
ratio  very  close  to  that  of  oats,  bushel  for  bushel,  so  that  when 
ground  wilh  either  corn  or  oats  the  mixture  should  be  made  on 
the  basis  of  weight,  not  bulk. 

We  have  to  go  abroad  to  learn  how  to  feed  it,  and  find  that 
Youatt  says  the  quantity  should  not  exceed  a  peck  daily.  It 
should  always  be  bruised,  and  when  the  straw  is  cut  it  should 
be  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  hay.  If  the  farmer  has  a 
quantity  of  spotted  or  unsaleable  barley  he  wishes  thus  to  get 
rid  of,  he  must  very  gradually  accustom  his  horses  to  it,  or  he 
will  probably  produce  serious  illness  among  them.  Indeed, 
barley  very  often  does  not  agree  at  all  with  hard-worked 
horses,  Youatt  says,  and  not  so  well  as  oats  with  horses  gen- 
erally. 

This  grain  has  sometimes  been  given  to  horses  just  recover- 
ing from  sickness  and  has  been  found  to  recruit  the  strength 
and  tempt  the  appetite.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is  best 
given  in  the  form  of  mashes,  water  considerably  below  the 
boiling  point,  yet  hot,  being  poured  upon  the  grain,  and  the 
vessel  being  kept  covered  with  a  cloth  for  half  an  hour  or  so» 
In  this  form  it  is  easily  digested. 

Wheat  and  .Rye. — Wheat  and  rye  are  not  important 
enough  as  horse  foods  to  demand  much  attention.  Professor 
Michener  says  they  should  not  be  used  in  any  but  small  quan- 
tities, bruised  or  crushed,  and  mixed  with  other  grains  or  hay. 
If  fed  alone,  in  any  considerable  quantities,  he  says  they  are 
almost  "  certain  to  produce  digestive  disorders,  laminitis 
(founder) ,  and  similar  troubles.     He  thinks  they  should  never 


56  HORSE  FEEDING. 

constitute  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  grain  allo^^^ance,  and 
should  always  be  ground  or  crushed. 

On  the  other  hand  there  are  doubtless  other  farmers  who 
would  give  much  the  same  testimony  as  this  one  in  Iowa  gives. 
He  says  :  "  Early  in  the  spring  of  1857  our  corn  was  exhausted 
and  we  resorted  to  boiled  wheat  to  feed  six  yoke  of  work  oxen, 
four  head  of  horses,  and  a  few  head  of  cows.  All  of  this  stock 
did  so  well  upon  the  wheat  ration  that  we  were  convinced  it 
was  very  valuable  for  feed  and  not  too  expensive  to  use.  Then 
for  the  next  few  years  our  large  wheat  crops  were  moved  to  a 
distant  market  by  teams  and  wagon,  and  a  part  of  these  teams 
were  fed  exclusively  on  wheat-bran,  and  we  observed  then 
that  the  teams  thus  fed  were  always  in  far  better  condition 
than  any  of  the  other  teams.  And  later  on  we  observed  in 
reading  the  reports  of  feeding  tests  that  whenever  bran  was 
made  a  part  of  the  ration  for  a  part  of  the  animals  being  fed 
and  not  for  the  other  part,  those  receiving  the  bran  in  their 
ration  generally  gave  the  best  results.  So  ten  years  ago  we 
became  thoroughly  convinced  that  it  would  be  very  stupid  in 
us  not  to  recognize  these  facts.  Therefore  we  mixed  our  seed 
oats  with  20  per  cent,  of  wheat,  and  have  never  sown  any  oats 
■^ince  that  were  not  one-fourth  to  one-fifth  wheat,  and  are  now 
thoroughly  convinced,  first,  that  both  the  wheat  and  oats  are 
thus  improved  in  quality ;  secondly,  that  the  yield  per  acre  is 
greater;  thirdly,  that  two  bushels  of  this  mixed  grain  are 
worth  more  to  feed  than  three  bushels  of  all  oats ;  fourthly  and 
last,  that  we  cannot  afibrd  to  raise  oats  without  mixing  wheat 
with  them.  For  mares  in  foal  and  mares  and  colts  we  have 
found  it  superior  to  any  other  ration  and  have  never  had  a 
case  of  abortion.  We  have  eight  mares  on  the  farm  now,  due 
to  foal  this  spring  and  in  fine  condition,  and  we  think  that  this 
grain  is  what  does  it.  We  always  have  one  or  more  stallions, 
and  have  had  the  best  of  results  by  feeding  them  on  this  mixed 
grain.  Our  work-horses  are  fed  exclusively  on  this  grain,  ex- 
cept a  little  corn  in  winter  for  variety."' 

Besides  this,  English  testimony  might  be  quoted  to  the  effect 
that  if  wheat  be  given  at  first  in  small  quantities  and  after- 
ward fed  with  discretion,  horses  will  thrive  on  it. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  horse  ought  not  to  be  al- 


THE  VARIOUS  FOODS.  57 

lowed  to  drink  water  immediatly  after  eating  wheat. 

Professor  Henry  says  that  rye  may  be  fed  ground  into  a 
meal  and  mixed  with  bran  to  make  it  lighter,  and  then 
sprinkled  over  moistened  hay.  If  it  must  be  fed  clear,  he 
prefers  rolling  the  grain  rather  than  reducing  it  to  a  powder 
by  grinding.  The  practice  of  boiling  rye  he  thinks  advisable 
in  at  least  a  limited  way,  and  he  notes  that  the  feeding  of  a 
little  grain  boiled,  especially  to  growing  colts,  is  a  practice 
tenaciously  adhered  to  by  some  of  our  best  horsemen. 

The  French  idea  is  to  give  rye  only  to  those  horses  that  suf- 
fer most  from  fatigue.  It  should  not  be  given  to  mares  in 
foal. 

Says  a  correspondent  of  the  Breeders  Gazette :  "  I  have  fed 
my  work  horses  and  young  horses  (except  brood  mares  in 
foal  and  weanling  colts)  unground  rye  for  the  last  three  years. 
I  give  one  pint  per  feed  with  four  quarts  of  oats  to  my  work 
teams,  and  they  do  better  on  that  feed  than  on  six  quarts  of 
oats.  They  keep  in  better  flesh  and  spirits  and  are  as  slick  as 
moles.  To'  young  horses  I  feed  half  the  amount.  I  never 
feed  it  to  my  brood  mares  ia  any  case.  I  am  afraid  of  the 
smut." 

Bran. — Just  as  there  is  a  variety  of  opinion  about  the  use  of 
wheat  whole  or  crushed,  so  there  is  a  variety  of  opinion  about 
the  use  of  that  part  of  it  known  as  bran,  but  with  this  difference, 
that  the  weight  of  authority  is  against  wheat  and  in  favor  of 
bran.  This  material  consists  of  the  husks  or  shells  from 
ground  wheat,  being  obtained  during  the  process  of  grinding 
by  separation  from  the  finer  flour.  To  be  sure,  the  husks  of 
other  grains  are  also  known  as  bran,  but  it  is  wheat  bran  that 
is  mainly  fed  to  horses,  and. what  may  be  said  for  or  against 
wheat  bran  applies  equally  to  the  other  kinds. 

Analysis  shows  wheat  bran  to  be  made  up  as  follows: 
Water,  13,71  per  cent;  ash,  5.53;  albuminoids,  14.56;  crude 
fibre,  10.83;  carbohydrates,  52.26;  fat,  3.11.  A  hundred 
pounds  of  it  contain  12.81  pounds  of  digestible  albuminoids; 
2.71  pounds  of  digestible  crude  fibre ;  41.81  pounds  of  digesti- 
ble carbohydrates ;  and  2.41  pounds  of  digestible  fat :  making 
its  nutritive  ratio  1 :3^.9.  Recalling  that  the  nutritive  ratio  of 
medium  red  clover  is  1 :6.3  ;  of  oats,  1 :6.4 ;  of  corn,  1 :8.1 :  re- 


58  (  HORSE  FEEDING.  '<\ 

■'i 

calling  and  comparing  these  figures  we  rightly  infer  that  wheat  ii 

bran  is  nearly  twice  as  nitrogenous,  so  to  say,  as  the  common  I 

foods  held  to  be  the  muscle  makers,  and  more  than  twice  as  *! 

nitrogenous  as  the  fattener,  corn.    Note,  however,  that  it  con-  i 

tains  more  than  ten  per  cent,  of  crude  fibre,  and  though  a  little  j^ 

more  than  one-fifth  of  this  is  set  down  as  digestible,  it  is  doubt-  *■ 

f  ui  if  it  does  horses  any  good  at  all.    To  be  sure,  oats  have  'i 

nearly  as  large  a  percentage  of  crude  fibre,  but  corn  has  only  ! 

one-fifth  as  much,  all  of  which  is  supposed  to  be  digestible.        i 

Furthermore,  and  not  of  least  consequence,  note  that  whereas  j 

oats  contain  a  trifle  less  than  3  per  cent,  of  ash,  and  corn  but  a 

little  more  than  1)4  per  cent.,  wheat  bran  contains  more  than  ' 

5)4  per  cent,  of  this,  the  material  that  goes  to  build  up  bone.  ■ 

For  the  same  reason,  and  because  of  its  excess  of  nitrogenous  j 

elements,  bran  ranks  near  the  top  as  a  manure  producer.  !! 

It  is  this  excess   of  nitrogenous  elements  that  makes   bran  j 

both  a  food  of  doubtful  utility  when  used  alone  or  as  the  chief  ; 

factor  in  a  ration,  and  at  the  same  time  a  food  of  unquestion-  ,; 

able  u  ility  when  mixed  with  other  foods.    Horsemen  have  so  j: 

long  thought  of  it  with  only  its  medicinal  qualities  in  mind, —  :i 

of  which  more  later  on,— that  they  are  slow  to  realize  its  ad-  i 

vantages  as  a  food  pure  and  simple,  but  these  exist  and  are  ■; 

coming  to  be  recognized.    It  is   manifest,   indeed,   that  the  J 

horse  owner  will  hunt  far  before  he  finds  material  as  cheap  and  | 

€asy  to  be  procured  that  contains  as  much  virtue  for  balancing   i 

the  nitrogenous  defects*of  hay,  straw  and  corn.    Nor  will  he  'i 

speedily  find  a  material  that  can  be  so  economically  used  to  ji 

give  to  ordinary  rations  the  variety  that  is  really  so  desirable  f 

in  animal  feeding.  ). 

One  farmer  writes  that  he  believes  '^  there  is  no  better  ration  '! 

for  horses,  milk  cows  and  calves,  than  corn  meal,  ground  oats  j 

and  wheat  bran  in  equal  parts.    This  ration  will  cost  less  than  j; 

corn  and  oats  fed  without  grinding.    One  hundred  pounds  of  | 

wheat  bran  is  worth  as  much  for  feeding  as  three  bushels  of  | 

oats.     A  good  ration  for  horses  not  working  too  hard,  is  equal 

parts  of  corn-meal  and  bran.    This  is  also  good  feed  for  milk 

cows  and  calves." 

Another  declares  that  '^  one  of  the  moSt  valuable  and  suitable 
ioods  for  young  horses  is  bran,  and  this  food  at  about  $7  a  ton 


THE  VARIOUS   FOODS.  59- 

cannot  be  considered  an  expensive  one.  The  following  mix- 
ture is  suitable  for  other  winter  and  summer  feed :  One-third 
crushed  oats,  one-third  crushed  corn  and  one-third  bran,  with, 
a  plentiful  supply  of  hay  or  corn  fodder." 

Still  another  advises  :  ''For  growing  horses  from  yearlings 
up,  make  free  use  of  bran  with  a  little  oil-meal,  say  not  over  a 
pound  and  a  half  to  a  thousand  weight  of  animal,  with  a  little 
corn  for  variety." 

A  fourth  testifies :  "  For  the  horse,  bran  mixed  with  corn, 
meal  will  serve  to  assist  digestion,  while  incidentally  it  will 
make  more  valuable  manure." 

A  fifth  writes  :  "  Calves  and  colts  are  easily  kept  fat  and  ap- 
parently in  good  condition  when  fed  on  corn  meal  and  hay 
but  to  grow  rapidly,  and  put  on  muscle,  they  must  be  fed  in 
addition  wheat  bran,  oilcake,  or  oats-.  Wheat  bran,  everything 
considered,  answers  the  purpose  better  than  any  of  the  more 
highly  concentrated  foods,  and  for  young  animals  it  is  beyond 
all  question  the  best.  It  is  easily  digested,  and  supplies  the 
growing  animals  with  all  the  muscle  necessary." 

And  Professor  Henry  sums  up  an  article  on  bran  by  saying  : 
"  I  think  there  is  evidence  enough,  both  on  the  scientific  and. 
practical  side,  to  show  that,  intelligently  used,  bran  is  a  very 
valuable  food  article  for  most  any  kind  of  live  stock." 

Nevertheless  so  experienced  a  horseman  as  John  Splan  has 
put  himself  on  record  as  opposed  to  bran  for  trotters,  and  it  is 
but  fair  to  say  that  he  is  not  alone  in  his  opinion.  To  offset 
it  Professor  Henry  recalls  that  when  he  visited  the  famous 
Ashland  farm,  the  former  home  of  Henry  Clay,  near  Lexington, 
Ky.,  then  in  possession  of  H.  C.  McDowell,  he  saw  a  bunch  of 
colts,  some  twenty  in  number,  many  of  them  sired  by  Dictator, 
gathered  about  a  long  feeding  box  in  a  blue-grass  pasture, 
which  was  being  filled  with  a  mixture  of  about  two-thirds  oats 
and  one-third  bran,  by  weight.  Other  breeders  of  fast  horses, 
too,  are  making  much  use  of  bran.  Charles  Marvin,  for  exam- 
ple, in  his  able  work  on  "  Training  the  Trotter,"  says  :  "  I  once 
gave  it  up  altogether,  and  substituted  boiled  oats,  with  a  little 
oil-meal  in  it,  for  horses  that  did  not  sweat  out  freely  and 
scrape  well.  However,  for  the  past  few  years  I  have  used  con- 
siderable bran  with  good   results.    Good,  clean  bran,  well- 


60  HORSE  FEEDING. 

scalded,  may  be  used  judiciously  to  great  advantage  where  a 
horse's  bowels  seem  to  need  a  little  loosening." 

Whatever  opinion  may  be  entertained  of  bran  as  a  regular 
article  of  diet,  there  is  but  one  opinion  of  its  value  as  an  occa- 
sional adjunct  to  any  ration,  because  of  its  medicinal  qualities. 
Bran  is  a  laxative,  correcting  tendencies  to  constipation,  pro- 
moting digestion  and  saving  many  a  dose  of  physic.  To  make 
most  advantageous  use  of  this  peculiarity  of  bran,  it  is  com- 
monly given  in  the  shape  of  a  mash,  best  at  night  before  a  day 
of  rest,  as  the  immediate  effect  is  somewhat  weakening.  Sat- 
urday night  is  the  usual  time  for  giving  it. 

Here  is  an  American  recipe  for  a  bran  mash:  "Take  four 
quarts  of  pure  wheat  bran,  and  two  teaspoonfuls  of  salt,  pour 
over  it  boiling  water,  and  stir  quickly  till  all  is  wet,  but  not  too 
thin,  cover  closely  to  confine  the  steam,  let  it  stand  until  cool, 
and  give  in  the  place  of  the  regular  feed." 

Here  is  an  English  recipe:  "Put  the  required  quantity  of 
bran  into  a  stable-rubber  and  tie  it  up,  and  then  let  it  steep  for 
a  short  time  in  a  bucket  tilled  with  enough  boiling  water  to  be 
absorbed  by  the  bran.  Wring  the  water  out  of  the  mash  by 
twisting  the  neck  of  the  rubber.  Open  the  rubber  and  spread 
it  out,  so  as  to  allow  the  mash  to  cool  a  little  before  giving." 

A.  J.  Feek,  the  successful  trainer  and  conditioner,  says  on 
the  subject :  "  I  do  not  approve  of  hot  mashes  when  a  horse  is 
well.  When  a  horse  is  sick  it  is  many  times  necessary  to  give 
him  a  hot  mash  to  steam  out  his  head  and  throat  and  warm  him 
up  in  case  of  a  bad  cold  or  other  sickness ;  but  when  a  horse  is 
well,  let  well  enough  alone.  I  have  had  horses  in  good  health 
which  became  sick,  that  is  to  say  took  cold  from  the  steam 
and  heating  propensities  of  a  hot  mash ;  it  opened  the  pores 
and  they  contracted  a  cold  on  their  next  exposure  to  a  colder 
temperature  or  on  giving  them  a  drive.  Throw  away  hot 
mashes,  soaking  tubs,  and  blanket  sweats,  for  they  have  been 
proved  an  injury  and  have  been  abandoned  by  all  first-class 
trainers  for  years." 

Sour  bran  is  not  to  be  given  horses  under  any  circumstances. 
It  disorders  the  stomach  and  intestines,  and  may  produce 
serious  results. 

Linseed  and  Cottonseed. — The  composition  of  linseed 


THE  VARIOUS   FOODS.  61 

and  cottonseed  meal  is  as  follows  :— 

Water    Ash    Albumi-  Crude  Carbo-    Fat 

noids  fibre  hydrates 

Linseed  meal         9.83      5.13     31.52  11.54  34.95         7.03 

Cottonseed  meal. 11. 06      7.39    40.56  3.56  23.86        13.57 

The  percentages  of  digestible  master,  or  the  number  of 
pounds  of  each  element  digested  in  100  pounds  of  food, 
are : — 

Albumi-        Crude        Carbo-       Fat        Nutri- 
noids  fibre  hydrates  tive 

ratio 
Linseed  meal.... 27. 42             3.00  31.80  6.40      1:1.9 

Cottonseed  meal  35.77  16.06  13,57      1:1.4 

Linseed  is  the  seed  of  lint  or  flax,  and  out  of  it  are  made  lin- 
seed oil,  oil-cake,  and  linseed  meal.  To  make  these  products 
the  seeds  are  first  bruised  or  crushed,  then  ground,  and  after- 
ward subjected  to  enormous  pressure  in  an  hydraulic  or  screw 
press,  whereby  all  of  the  oil  but  about  10  per  cent,  is  pressed 
out.  The  pressed  material  forms  a  cake  about  two  feet  long, 
eight  or  ten  inches  wide,  and  an  inch  thick.  This  is  "oil-cake." 
It  is  usually  shipped  to  England  in  this  form.  Before  feeding 
the  cake  is  broken  up  and  ground  to  a  coarse  meal.  This  is 
called  oil-meal,  oil-cake  meal,  and  sometimes,  perhaps  improp- 
erly, linseed  meal.  In  this  countryv  that  cake  designed  for 
home  consumption  is  usually  ground  at  the  mills  and  sold  in 
sacks. 

Cottonseed  meal  is  produced  in  the  same  way,  being  the  by- 
product in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  seed  oil.  It  is  only  with- 
in a  very  few  years  that  its  value  for  stock  food  has  been  real- 
ized, and  even  now  great  quantities  of  it  go  to  waste,  either  on 
the  plantation  in  the  uncrushed  seed  or  at  the  side  of  the  oil- 
mill.  But  enough  oil  and  meal  have  already  been  utilized  to 
show  that  few  discoveries  of  the  present  century  bid  fair  to  do 
more  good  to  mankind  than  the  discovery  of  the  virtues  of  the 
seed  of  cotton.  Yet  many  Southerners  can  recall  the  time 
when  a  team  of  oxen  hauling  loads  of  cotton  away  from  the 
gin,  where  hundreds  of  bushels  of  seed  were  rotting,  would 
have  also  to  pull  enough  corn  to  eat  on  the  trip,  and  it  might 
be  the  same  wagon  would  return  from  town  loaded  with  West- 


62  HORSE  FEEDING. 

ern  corn  to  feed  the  horses  to  make  the  next  cro^.  Cjttoa 
seed  was  then  thought  to  be  unfit  for  oxen.  Even  still  the 
South  is  paying  literally  millions  of  dollars  for  horses,  mules, 
corn,  meat,  hay  and  other  products  of  other  regions,  while  the 
oil  mills  of  the  South  are  burning  a  million  tons  annually  of 
the  finest  feed  (cotton  seed  hulls)  for  want  of  purchasers  at 
$2  to  $4  a  ton. 

Flax-seed  or  linseed  is  rarely  fed  whole.  As  is  natural  to 
suppose,  so  fine  and  slippery  a  seed  is  not  well  digested.  It 
not  more  than  a  gill  or  half  a  pint  of  this  sort  of  feed  was  used 
daily,  perhaps  the  ground  flaxseed  would  be  superior  to  oil- 
meal,  but  a  larger  quantity  would  furnish  too  much  oil.  The 
oil-meal  contains  all  the  muscle  and  bone  elements  of  the  flax- 
seed with  a  smaller  proportion  of  oil,  but  there  is  enough  oil  in 
it  to  cause  it  to  have  a  very  excellent  effect  on  the  digestive  tract, 
so  that  it  would  be  unwise  to  feed  in  its  stead  flaxseed,  ground 
or  ungj-ound,  except  in  rare  cases. 

In  England  it  has  lately  been  a  good  deal  used  in  feeding 
farm  horses,  the  farmers  boiling  it  with  roots.  The  best  way 
to  do  this  is  to  keep  it  in  a  bag  by  itself,  so  that  it  may  not  get 
mixed  with  the  other  feed  in  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  put.  In 
gentlemen's  stables  it  is  used  for  mashes,  and  is  held  to  be» 
where  horses  will  eat  it,  a  most  desirable  addition  to  the  menu^ 
especially  after  a  hard  day's  work,  such  as  hunting.  For  a 
mash  it  requires  long  and  careful  cooking,  until  it  is  like  jelly. 
Therefore,  when  a  horse  leaves  the  stable  on  a  hunting-day,  hi& 
linseed  mash  may  be  at  once  set  on  to  cook,  and  it  will  not  be 
ready  any  too  soon  for  him,  whatever  time  he  may  come  in. 

The  merit  of  linseed  lies  chiefly  in  the  fact  that,  whereas  it 
is  a  laxative,  gentle  and  soothing,  its  use  by  no  means  weakens 
the  strength  of  a  horse,  its  laxative  powers  being  more  than 
compensated  for  by  its  nutritive  qualities.  Its  analysis  shows 
that  it  has  a  tremendous  proportion  of  nitrogenous  elements, 
being  exeelled  in  this  by  scarcely  any  food  except  cottonseed. 
In  the  capacity  for  muscle-making  the  two  are  incomparably  at 
the  head. 

The  skins  of  horses  fed  upon  linseed  are  usually  very  fresh 
and  bright  looking,  and  this  fact  has  been  taken  advantage  of 
by  horse-dealers  and  others  who  want  to  improve  the  appear- 


THE  VARIOUS   FOODS.  §3 

ance  and  general  condition  of  animals  that  have  returned  from 
grass  out  of  condition,  with  rough  coats  and  lean  bodies.  Too 
free  a  use  of  it  for  this  purpose,  however,  is  decidedly 
injurious. 

Ground  linseed,  like  the  whole  seed,  is  occasionally  fed  with 
other  foods  to  keep  the  bowels  open  and  to  improve  the  condi- 
tion of  the  skin.  It  is  of  peculiar  service  during  convalescence, 
when  the  bowels  are  sluggish  in  their  action.  Linseed  tea  is 
very  often  given  in  irritable  or  inflamed  conditions  of  the  diges- 
tive organs. 

Cotton-seed  meal  has  so  far  been  fed  much  more  to  cattle 
than  to  horses,  and  it  is  difficult  as  yet  to  draw  satisfactory 
conclusions  as  to  its  adaptability  as  a  horse  food.  Northern 
authorities  seem  to  think  it  should  be  used  only  in  small  quan- 
tities and  with  great  caution.  Southern  experimenters  do  not 
express  themselves  so  strongly  in  the  matter  of  caution,  but 
say  that  it  is  not  wise  to  depend  on  it  to  displace  grain  entirely. 
They  think  it  a  valuable  supplement  to  the  home-raised  foods 
that  are  poor  in  albuminoids,  such  as  straw,  hay,  corn-fodder, 
€tc.  Perhaps  nothing  more  satisfactory  can  be  given  in  addi- 
tion to  this  than  quotations  from  two  recent  contributions  to 
Southern  papers.  One  says  :  '*  With  eight  cents  a  day  in  cot- 
tonseed meal  and  hulls,  I  can  put  all  the  flesh  on  a  thousand- 
pound  steer  that  his  frame  will  hold,  or  get  all  the  work  out  of 
him  he  is  capable  of  doing.  '  Why  do  we  not  do  the  same  with 
mules  and  horses?'  has  often  been  asked.  Horse  feed  is  very 
expensive,  and  especially  so  here  where  all  the  corn,  oats,  and 
hay  are  bought.  Now,  cottonseed  meal  is  not  only  cheaper, 
pound  for  pound,  than  corn,  but  contains  about  three  times  as 
much  nutriment  and  hulls  cost  only  one-fifth  of  the  price  of  hay. 
The  more  hulls  and  meal  a  horse  can  be  made  to  eat,  then  the  less 
expensive  will  be  the  ration.  I  have  been  experimenting  on 
this  line,  and,  for  the  benefit  of  others,  give  something  of  the 
results.  I  began  with  a  horse  and  a  mule,  and  by  mixing  only 
the  smallest  quantity  of  meal  and  hulls  with  corn  chops  and 
bran,  induced  them  to  eat  it.  The  amount  was  increased  from 
day  to  day  till  they  now  eat  three  pounds  of  meal  and  enough 
hulls  to  furnish  suflicient  roughness.  I  confidently  expect  in 
a  year's  time  to  be  able  to  feed  horses  on  10  or  12  cents  a  day, 


64  HORSE  FEEDING. 

% 

instead  of  30  or  40  cents  .  Corn  meal  and  cotton  seed  meal  and 
hulls  make  an  excellent  combination.  Corn  fed  alone  is  too 
heating  and  contains  too  little  of  the  albuminoids,  or  muscle- 
producing  elements.  Cottonseed  meal  is  exceedingly  rich  in 
these.    The  two  mixed  will  make  the  complete  ration." 

Another  writes,  starting  with  his  experience  in  feeding  cat- 
tle:  *'  While  cotton  seed  hulls  are  admitted  on  all  sides  to  be 
an  excellent  rough  feed,  I  do  not  think  they  have  been  esti- 
mated high  enough  in  comparison  with  hay  or  other  proven- 
der.   Having  fed  large  quantities  for  two  years,  I  regard  them 
as  being  worth  more,  pound  for  pound,  than  average  Bermuda 
or  other  grass  hay.    I  feed  about  8  to  12  pounds  hulls  a  day,  , 
four  pounds  wheat  bran  and  four  pounds  cotton  seed  meal,  ! 
thoroughly  mixed  together,   with  very  satisfactory  results.  , 
This  ration  is  very  cheap,  about  10  cents  a  day,  and  the  yield 
and  quality  of  milk  are  highly  satisfactory.    Hulls  are  much  - 
more  easily  handled  than  hay,  and  there  is  less  waste  in  feed- 
ing, as  the  cows  eat  up  the  hulls  -very  clean.  • 

"  In  the  spring  of  1890,  about  the  time  I  thought  there  was  < 
getting  to  be  abundant  grass  in  pasture,  my  hulls  gave  out.  i 
The  milk  yield  began  to  fall  off  so  that  I  increased  the  bran  and  I 
cotton  seed  meal,  but  never  did  I,  during  the  whole  spring,  j 
get  as  good  results  as  when  I  used  hulls.  So  I  consider  hulls 
(fed  in  connection  with  bran  and  cotton  seed  meal)  equal  to 
tolerably  ample  Bermuda  pasture  as  a  milk  producer. 

"Having  found  them  such  an  excellent  food  for  cattle,  and 
knowing  that  cotton  seed  meal  is  being  fed  to  some  extent  to 
horses,  I  reasoned  that  hulls  ought  also  to  be  good  for  horses. 
So  I  procured  some  corn  meal,  and  by  mixing  only  a  very 
small  quantity  of  cotton  seed  meal  and  hulls  with  bran  and 
corn  meal,  succeeded  in  making  them  eat  it.  The  quantity  of 
the  hulls  and  meal  was  increased  gradually  until  each  animal 
consumed  about  three  pounds  of  meal  and  considerable  hulls." 

It  has  been  found  hard  to  make  concordant  analyses  of  cotton 
seed  hulls,  because  of  their  considerable  variance  in  composi- 
tion, the  amount  of  lint  remaining,  and  mechanically  enclosed 
particles  of  meal  or  parts  of  seed.  Below  are  the  analyses  of 
three  samples : 


THE  VARIOUS   FOODS.  G5 

12  3 

Water 9.96        10.03  9.98 

Crnde  fibre 66.95        55.15         52.71 

Crude  fats 2.27  2.25  2.28 

Albuminoids....  ••5.06  5.37  5.37 

Nit'g'nfr'e  ext'ct,12.41       22.19         26.74 

Ash ..3.35.         4.01  2  92 

Nos.  2  and  3  agree  very  closely,  while  the  crude  fibre  in 
No.  1  is  largely  in  excess. 

In  many  instances  unfavorable  results  have  followed  the  feed- 
ing of  spoiled  cotton  seed  or  cotton  seed  meal.  It  is  quite 
probable  that  these  are  sometimes  due  to  the  poisonous  influ- 
ence of  ptomaines.  It  will  be  well  to  remember  that  fresh 
cotton  seed  meal  from  good  seed  has  a  bright  yellow  color,  a 
fresh  pleasant  smell,  and  granulates  readily.  Older  meal  or 
fresh  meal  it  made  from  spoiled  seed,  has  a  darker  color,  some- 
thing of  a  musty  odor,  and  is  inclined  to  adhere  in  lumps. 

As  might  be  expected  from  the  composition  of  cotton  seed, 
its  manurial  value  is  great.    Analysis  shows  the  following : 

Nitrogen        Phosphoric       Potash 
Per    Pounds         acid  Per  Pounds 

cent  in  a  ton    Per  Pounds  cent  in  a  toa 
cent  in  a  ton 

Cottonseed  meal 7.03       140.6      3.28     65.6      1.88    37.6 

Cottonseed  meal.....  7.38       147.6     3.08      61:6      2.03    40.6 

Average... 7.20       144.0     3.18     63.6      1.96    39.1 

Linseed  meal 4.92         98.4     1.98     39.6      1.14    22.8 

Linseed  meal 5.65       113.0     1.80     36.0      1.11    22.2 

Average .:5.29        105.8      1.89     37.8      1.31    22.5 

As  we  have  seen,  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station  cal- 
culates the  fertilizing  value  of  cotton  seed  meal  at  $10.12  for 
every  |10  worth.  The  New  York  Station  estimate  is  a  trifle 
lower,  putting  it  at  $25.09  a  ton  on  a  basis  of  |26  a  ton  for 
market  cost  of  the  meal.  As  its  food  value  is  theoretically 
$33.47,  the  sum  total  of  the  two,  $58.56  is  enormously  out  of 
proportion  to  what  it  costs  to  buy  the  article.  If  it  should  turn 
out  safe  to  use  it  extensively  as  a  horse  food,  it  is  plain  that 
horse-owners  will  profit  greatly  by  adopting  it. 

Cottonseed  hulls  have  a  very  inferior  manurial  value,  only 


^6  HORSE  FEEDING. 


^2.42  a  ton,   according  to  the  Vermont  Experiment  Station 
calculation. 

Beans,  Peas,  and  Minor  Foods.— Beans  are  a  food 
much  less  given  to  horses  now  than  formerlj^  and  much  less 
here  than  abroad.  This  fact  gives  occasion  for  a  striking  illus- 
tration of  the  change  in  sentiment  that  sometimes  takes  place 
in  regard  to  such  matters,  and  the  variance  in  opinions  held  in  : 
different  countries  as  well  as  at  different  times.  Youatt,  writ- 
ing in  England  sixty  years  ago.  (and  the  editor  of  the  edition 
published  in  1865  approves  his  language  by  retaining  it,)  made 
the  following  statements  :- 

"  There  are  many  horses  that  will  not  stand  hard  work  with- 
out beans  being  mingled  with  their  food,  and  these  are  not 
horses  whose  tendency  to  purge  it  may  be  necessary  to  restrain 
by  the  astringency  of  the  bean.    There  is  no  traveller  who  is^^ 
not  aware  of  the  difference  in  spirit  and  continuance  of  his 
horse  whether  he  allows  or  denies  him  beans  on  his  journey. | 
They  afford  not  merely  a  temporary  stimulus,  but  they  may  be'j 
daily  used  without  losing  their  power,  or  producing  exhaus-J 
tion.    They  are  indispensable  to  the  hard  worked  coach  horse,  j; 
Washy  horses  could  never  get  through  their  work  without  them  ;| 
and  old  horses  would  often  sink  under  the  task  imposed  uponj 
them."  I 

Nevertheless,  without  tasting  a  bean  from  year's  end  toi 
year's  end,  thousands  of  American  horses  do  the  hardest  off 
work  and  yet  survive,  phenomenal  as  it  might  seem  to  Youatt  j 
if  he  were  alive.  We  have  hardly  enough  coach  horses  left  to| 
say  whether  the  bean  is  as  indispensable  to  them  as  to  the  Bos-| 
tonian,  but  what  there  are  seem  somehow  to  get  along  without^ 
it.  Neither  do  our  travellers  appear  delayed  greatly  becau-^e? 
the  absence  of  the  bean  from  the  morning  meal  has  dispirited! 
the  horse.  I 

The  modern  American  idea  is  that  when  beans  are  fed  at  all| 
they  should  be  given  with  great  discretion.  They  are  recog-f 
nized  as  heating  and  astringent  by  nature,  and  therefore  often! 
to  be  given  with  advantage  to  horses  liable  to  purge,  but  they 
are  by  themselves  too  stimulating  and  binding.  Therefore 
they  should  never  be  fed  at  all  to  horses  that  are  not  working. 
They  are  injurious  when  given  alone,  and  should  not  be  fed  for 


THE  VARIOUS  FOODS.  67 

any  lergth  of  time  as  their  prolonged  use  is  liable  to  cause 
swelled  legs,  humors,  and  itchiness.  They  should  never  be 
fed  when  less  than  a  year  old,  and  should  be  hard,  not  soft. 
Old  beans  in  good  condition  are  very  hard.  They  ought  to  be 
crushed  before  being  fed. 

Peas  have  all  the  advantageous,  properties  of  beans  without 
their  harmful  qualities,  and  where  such  food  is  required,  they 
should  be  given  the  preference  over  beans.  They,  too,  should 
be  given  in  moderation,  and  not  long  steadily.  The  white  peas^ 
are  best  suited  for  horses.  They  are  somewhat  expensive  as  a 
horse-food,  but  they  are  a  good  addition  to  the  menu  at  times 
and  they  put  heart  into  a  weakly  horse  and  muscle  on  him. 
Like  beans  they  are  better  crushed,  as  on  account  of  their 
rounded  shape  they  are  otherwise  likely  to  escape  the  grinding 
of  the  teeth  and  be  swallowed  whole.  Many  think  it  unadvis- 
able  to  give  them  to  horses  from  whom  full  speed  is  demanded, 
and  hold  they  are  better  adapted  for  draught  horses.  Some 
horses  will  eat  peas  very  greedily  when  they  get  the  chance, 
and  as  peas  when  exposed  to  the  warmth  and  moisture  of  the 
stomach,  swell  considerably,  the  result  is  that  when  eaten  to 
excess  they  painfully  and  injuriously  distend  it,  and  instances 
have  been  known  of  its  actually  bursting  in  consequence.  This 
is  to  be  as  much  guarded  against  as  the  raeagrims,  or  staggers, 
caused  by  beans. 

In  some  countries  pea-meal  is  frequently  used,  not  only  as  an 
excellent  food  for  the  horse,  but  as  a  remedy  for  diabetes. 

Vetches  or  tares  are  plants  closely  allied  to  the  pea,  that  are 
much  cultivated  in  Europe  for  fodder,  but  that  have  not  become 
popular  in  America,  and  are  rarely  grown  here.  Yet  their 
analysis  justifies  their  popularity  abroad,  for  they  are  quite  the 
equal  of  clover  in  nutritive  principles.  Youatt  says  that  of 
their  value  as  forming  a  portion  of  the  late  spring  and  summer 
food  of  the  stabled  and  agricultural  horse  there  can  be  no  doubt. 
But  remembering  what  he  said  of  beans,  we  are  not  inclined  to 
accept  this  verdict  unreservedly.  He  says  they  are  cut  after 
the  pods  are  formed,  but  a  considerable  time  before  the  seeds 
are  ripe  "  They  supply  a  larger  quantity  of  food  for  a  limited 
time  than  almost  any  other  forage  crop.  The  vicia  sativa  is  the 
most  profitable  variety  of  the  tare.      It  is  very  nutritive,  and 


68  HORSE   FEEDING.       ,  ] 

i 

acts  as  a  gentle  aperient.  When  surfeit-lumps  appear  on  the  j 
skin,  and  the  horse  begins  to  rub  himself  against  the  divisions  < 
of  the  stall,  and  the  legs  swell,  and  the  heels  threaten  to  crack,  ■ 
a  few  tares,  cut  up  with  the  chaflf,  or  given  instead  of  a  portion  j 
of  the  hay,  will  afiord  considerable  relief.  Ten  or  twelve?! 
pounds  may  be  allowed  daily,  and  half  that  weight  of  hay  sub-v 
tracted.  It  is  an  erroneous  notion  that,  given  in  moderate 
quantities,  they  either  roughen  the  coat  or  lessen  the  capability  ' 
for  hard  work." 

Millet-meal  is  spoken  of  by  Stewart  in  very  high  terms,  and  ^ 
he  deems  it  proper  food  for  young  or  mature  horses.  It  has  a  . 
higher  proportion  of  albuminoids  than  oats,  but  less  oil.  "  It  j 
is  found,"  says  Stewart,  "  when  well  ground,  (and  it  cannot  be  | 
properly  fed  without  grinding,)  to  be  one  of  the  best  rations  ; 
for  horses,  being  particularly  adapted  to  the  development  of  | 
muscular  strength."  j 

Sugar  and  molasses  are  not  familiar  horse  foods  to  horse  j 
owners  in  this  country,  but  in  some  parts  of  the  world  they  ^ 
have  long  been  fed  with  safety  and  profit.  We. are  told  that  in  i 
the  course  of  the  Peninsular  War  sugar  w^as  tried  on  ten  horses,  . 
each  of  which  got  8  lbs.  a  day  at  four  rations.  They  took  it^ 
very  readily,  and  their  coats  became  fine,  smooth,  and  glossy.  , 
They  got  no  corn  and  only  71"bs.  of  hay  instead  of  the  ordinary  ,i 
allowance,  which  was  12  lbs.  '; 

Of  late  years  sugar  and  molasses  have  been  much  used  in  j 
Australia,  South  America,  and  elsewhere  for  getting  horses  < 
into  condition  for  sale,  and  also  colts  while  wintering  in  the  i 
yard.  In  the  case  of  horses  "  ofl"  their  feed,"  or  to  induce  them  t 
to  eat  their  food  that  they  would  otherwise  reject,  sugar  may  ^ 
be  used.  The  average  quantity  of  sugar  a  day  for  a  horse  in  li 
poor  condition  is  about  a  pound  and  a  half.  This  should  be  i 
mixed  with  cut  hay  or  chafi'and  turned  over  a  few  times,  leav-H 
ing  it  for  a  few  hours  to  allow  the  sugar  to  be  absorbed.  Seven  ij 
pounds  of  sugar  to  56  pounds  of  hay  is  a  gfcod  proportion.  i 

There  are  many  special  foods  on  the  market  for  which  some-  | 
what  startling  claims  are  made.    Many  of  them  aje  asserted  to  j 
have  a  medicinal  or  tonic  value,  and  in  some  cases  this  is  \ 
doubtless  true,  but  it  is  always  safe  to  buy  feed  and  medicine 
separately.      Moreover,  such  foods  are  generally  sold  much 


THE   VARIOUS   FOODS.  69 

above  their  feeding  value.  It  is  a  rare  feeder  that  can  afford  to 
pay  transportation  on  a  ton  of  feeding;  stuff  for  a  few  pounds 
of  material  having  a  medicinal  value.  Nor  is  the  indiscriminate 
feeding  of  foods  containing  tonics  of  unknown  quality,  kind 
and  quantity  to  be  encouraged.  Few  of  the  so-called  special 
and  concentrated  feeds  have  a  higher  feeding  value  than  bran, 
and  in  general  it  is  not  to  be  considered  a  good  investment  to 
pay  more  for  thegi  than  the  nominal  feeding  value  of  bran. 

Salt.  —  The  ordinary  food  of  the  horse,  like  the  food  of  man, 
contains  some  salt,  but  not  enough.  Its  presence  in  its  natural 
form  in  the  diet  of  either  is  not  merely  desirable  as  a  condiment, 
a  seasoning, — it  is  practically  a  necessity,  for  although  animals 
will  not  perish  if  they  do  not  get  more  than  their  food  contains, 
they  will  suffer  and  not  thrive.  Therefore  it  is  natural  for  them 
to  crave  it.  As  an  illustration  of  what  they  will  do  to  get  it, 
the  fact  may  be  cited  that  in  India  horses  have  been  known  to 
eat  away  at  the  stable  walls  and  mangers,  (which  are  generally 
made  of  mud  bricks  dried  in  the  sun,)  to  get  the  saltpetre  that 
is  everywhere  present  in  Indian  soil. 

Almost  everybody  now  agrees  that  the  best  way  to  give  it  to 
horses  is  in  the  form  of  a  lump  of  rock-salt  in  the  manger  or  the 
pasture.  This  is  preferable  to  feeding  it  at  irregular  intervals 
in  large  quantities,  or  to  mixing  it  crushed  with  the  feed, 
because  when  the  horse  is  salt-ravenous  he  eats  more  than  tie 
ought,  and  when  he  swallows  it  with  his  ration,  more  or  less 
loose  salt  gets  into  the  stomach  undissolved,  causing  irritation 
and  consequent  illness.  Many  instances  of  colic  caused  by  an 
over-dose  of  common  salt  are  well  authenticated. 

Some  recommend  that  the  hay  be  sprinkled  with  water  in 
which  salt  has  been  dissolved,  but  this  plan  is  laborious,  and 
has  the  same  danger  of  furnishing  too  much  or  too  little.  The 
lump  method  of  salting  is  easier,  cheaper,  and  devoid  of  risk. 
A  lump  costs  but  a  trifle,  and  lasts  a  long  time,  as  the  hor^e 
only  licks  it  as  he  needs  it,  and  his  desire  is  satisfied  by  a  very 
little,  Better  still,  this  expedient  makes  it  impossible  that  the 
horse  shall  suffer  from  the  neglect  of  attendants  to  supply  him 
with  this  food  so  essential  to  his  comfort  and  his  health.  Some 
enthusiasts  go  so  far  as  to  express  a  belief  that  there  would  not 
be  one  case  of  colic  or  the  heaves  where  there  are  a  hundred 


70  HORSE  FEEDING. 

now,  if  lump  salt  were  always  kept  handy  for  the  horses.  j| 
Doubtless  this  is  an  exaggeration,  yet  nevertheless  it  is  certain  ji 
that  the  lump  of  salt  will  ward  off  much  sickness.  Even  if  | 
this  consideration  did  not  affect  the  pocket-books  of  horse-  ■:■ 
owners,  they  ought  to  be  moved  by  the  humane  aspect  of  the  | 
matter,  remembering  that  "  a  merciful  man  is  merciful  to  his  'j 
beast." 


THE  PKEPARATIOX   OF   FOOD.  71 


CHAPTER  IlL 

The  Preparation  of  Food. 

Foods  are  prepared  for  consumption  in  order  that  they  may 
be  more  easily  taken  into  the  stomach  ;  that  a  greater  propor- 
tion of  them  may  be  digested ;  that  they  may  be  more  easily 
digested;  that  they  may  receive  some  new  property;  or  that 
they  may  be  preserved.  These  are  all  praiseworthy  objects, 
but  as  the  preparation  of  food  is  laborious  and  more  or  less 
costly,  it  is  clearly  not  worth  while  to  undertake  it  if  none  of 
these  objects  will  be  accomplished  or  if  their  benefits  are  not 
proportional  to  the  trouble.  To  determine  this,  however,  is 
not  always  easy.  In  some  cases,  as  in  the  cutting  of  hay,  and 
especially  straw,  opinion  is  nearly  unanimous  in  favor  of  the 
work,  while  in  the  matter  of  cooking,  the  weight  of  opinion 
seems  to  be  adverse.  Again,  what  may  be  profitable  in  the 
case  of  a  large  car-horse  stable  or  breeding  farm,  where  small 
economies  count  up,  may  be  the  opposite  of  profitable  for  the 
owner  of  a  single  family  horse  or  for  the  average  farmer. 
Therefore  circumstances  must  be  allowed  to  affect  the  applica- 
tion of  whatever  rules  may  be  laid  down.  A  little  common 
sense  will  be  a  useful  thing  here. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  hay  and  fodder  are  economized  when 
cut  in  short  pieces.  The  horse  eats  more  in  a  shorter  time  ;  he 
wastes  less  by  pulling  it  from  the  manger  and  dropping  it  on 
the  floor ;  and  he  masticates  it  more  thoroughly,  which  is  con- 
ducive to  better  digestion.  Two  horses  fed  by  Professor  San- 
born on  cut  hay  for  85  days  gained  99  pounds,  but  two  others 
fed  on  uncut  hay  gained  only  62  pounds.  Then  he  reversed  the 
feeds  lor  48  days,  during  which  the  lot  fed  on  cut  hay  gained  75 
pounds,  but  the  .other  lot  lost  5  ppunds.  The  test  was  made 
with  lucerne  and  clover. 

Bad  hay  should  never  be  cut  simply  because  in  that  form 
more  of  it  will  be  eaten ;  bad  foods  are  dear  at  any  price  and 


72  HORSE   FEEDING.  "        ,1 

'l 

should  never  be  fed.  Some  long  and  uncut  hay  should  be  given  I 
to  horses  that  bolt  their  food,  even  though  a  certain  amount  of  ''■ 
hay  or  straw  is  cut  and  fed  mixed  with  the  grain. 

The  diiferent  grains  are  more  easily  eaten  when  ground  or  ■', 
crushed.  In  England  it  is  generally  held  to  be  the  best  plan  to  i^ 
bruise  even  oats.  Though  a  strong  horse  in  his  prime  will  be  i 
able  to  masticate  them  easily  enough,  it  is  thought  often  worth  i 
while  to  save  the  time  and  work  required  for  the  operation;^ 
and  bruising  all  grain  is  thought  especially  desirable  for  old  | 
horses  with  defective  masticating  powers  and  for  greedy  horses  i 
that  bolt  their  food.  Rye  or  wheat  should  never  be  given  t 
whole,  and  even  corn  wastes  less  when  ground,  and,  in  common  ? 
with  all  other  grains,  is  more  easily  digested  than  when  fed  i 
whole.    Marvin  says  on  this  point : —  I 

'•  I  am  aware  that  some  horsemen  do  not  believe  in  feeding  Ij 
cracked  or  ground  food,  but  my  experience  convinces  me  that  \ 
a  limited  proportion  of  it  is  beneficial  in  all  cases  and  quite  i 
essential  in  some.  Horses  that  are  inclined  to  bolt  their  oats  i 
and  horses  in  whose  dung  is  observed  whole  grains  will,  for  « 
obvious  reasons,  get  more  nourishment  from  broken  than  from  i 
whole  grains.  Unmasticated  food  can  aftbrd  little  nourishment,  ■ 
and  when  a  horse  will  bolt  his  oats  without  masticating  they  ^ 
should  be  given  it  in  the  broken  form." 

A  test  of  the  comparative  values  of  whole  and  ground  grain  t 
is  reported  from  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station.     It  was  made  » 
with  six  imported  colts,  two  each  of  Shires,  Percherons  and  f 
French  Coachers.    They  were  foaled  in  the  spring  of  18&1,  and  ji 
reached  the  college  farm  late  in  September.     The  test  did  not  \ 
begin  until  March  1,  but  in  passing  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  | 
results  of  feeding  from  October  until  that  time.      It  is  stated  i 
that  during  October,  November  and  December  the  colts  were, 
fed  nine  pounds  each  of  grain  a  day,  consisting  of  four  pounds 
oats,  two  pounds  corn,  two  pounds  ground  wheat  or  barley, 
and  one  pound  of  oil-meal ;  the  other  food  consisted  of  14  pounds 
of  hay,  two  pounds  of  cut  fodder  tops,  two  pounds  of  carrots 
during  the  first  six  weeks,  and  five  pounds  of  fresh  whole  milk* 
During  November  they  also  had  30  pounds  of  cooked  barley, 
fed  warm,  each.    The  gains  from  Oct.  1  to  Jan.  1  were  :  Shires, 
322  pounds  ^  Percherons^  400  pounds  •  and  Coachers,  281  pounds. 

.; 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  FOOD.  iS 

During  January  and  February  the  fl;rain  food  was :  150  lbs. 
oats,  50  lbs.  corn,  25  lbs.  ground  wheat,  and  25  lbs.  oil-meal 
mixed  together,  each  colt  getting  six  and  one-half  pounds  of 
the  mixture  a  day.  The  rough  food  was  mostly  cut  stover  and 
sheaf  oats,  about  15  pounds  each  a  day,  and  three  pounds  each 
of  timothy  and  clover  hay,  fed  at  night.  The  gain  for  these 
two  months  is  given  as:  Percherons,  179;  Shires,  157;  and 
Coachers,  150.  During  this  latter  period  separated  milk  was 
used  in  place  of  the  whole  milk  of  the  preceding  period.  The 
carrots  appeared  to  give  good  results  and  were  liked  by  all  the 
colts,  but  an  attempt  to  substitute  sugar  beets  when  the  carrots 
were  all  fed  gave  evidence  that  they  were  less  acceptable  to  the 
colts  than  the  carrots.  Several  unsuccessful  attempts  to  get 
the  colts  to  eat  the  beets  were  made  during  the  winter,  although 
they  were  freely  eaten  by  the  sheep  and  cattle. 

From  the  first  of  March  until  the  19th  of  May  the  colts  were 
divided  into  two  lots,  one  of  which  was  fed  ground  grain  mixed 
with  a  small  amount  of  moistened  cut  hay,  and  the  other  had  the 
same  amount  and  kind  of  grain  fed  whole  and  not  mixed  with 
hay.  The  grain  ration  was  made  up  of  150  lbs.  oats,  50  shelled 
corn,  25  barley  bran,  and  25  oil  meal.  The  results  of  this  trial 
show  a  slight  advantage  in  grinding  the  grain  and  mixing  with 
cut  hay,  and  it  is  stated  that  the  additional  gain  made  on  the 
ground  feed  was  equivalent  to  a  saving  of  307.5  lbs.  of  grain, 
and  533  lbs.  of  hay.  The  average  gain  a  day  each  for  the  six 
colts  from  Oct.  1  to  May  18  is  given  as  1.74  lbs. 

Drying  preserves  the  different  foods  and  changes  some  of 
their  properties,  notably  removing  the  laxative  tendencies  of 
most  of  them. 

Cooking  stock  feed  is  not  as  popular  as  it  was  some  years 
ago.  Of  late  there  has  been  a  feeling  abroad  that  after  all 
there  may  not  be  much  gained  by  it ;  that  if  the  digestibility  of 
the  feed  is  increased  at  all  by  cooking,  which  has  not  been  sat- 
isfactorily proved,  the  gain  is  so  small  that  it  does  not  pay  for 
the  extra  work  as  well  as  the  interest  on  the  steaming  appara- 
tus, and  for  this  reason  one  hears  but  little  nowadays  about  the 
advantage  of  boiled  dinners  for  stock.  As  Professor  Georgeson 
put  it,  cooking  cannot  add  anything  to  the  food.  It  can  neither 
increase  nor  diminish  the  amount  of  nutritive  matter.     If  the 


74  HORSE  FEEDING. 

process  is  of  benefit  at  all,  the  benefit  must  occur  in  one  or  both  .j 
of  two  ways ;  either  by  rendering  the  nutritive  matter  the  food  j 
contains  more  digestible,  so  that  a  larger  amount  of  it  can  be  1 
appropriated  by  the  system  ;  or  secondly,  by  rendering  the  food  i 
more  palatable,  so  that  the  animal  will  eat  more.  It  is  a  pretty 
well  established  fact  that  the  coarse  fodders,  hay,  straw,  corn  | 
fodder,  etc.,  do  not  gain  in  digestibility  by  cooking  or  steaming.  ;] 
Some  foods  actually  lose.  This  is,  for  instance,  the  case  with  {] 
bran.  Dry  wheat  bran  is  more  digestible  than  steamed  or  !■ 
soaked  bran.  On  the  other  hand,  the  food  may  be  rendered  ij 
more  palatable  by  being  moistened,  and  we  may  thus  induce  ^ 
the  stock  to  eat  somewhat  more  than  would  be  the  case  with  j^ 
dry  fodder.  ji 

Professor  Michener  says  that  boiling  or  steaming  grains  is  to  ij 
be  recommended  when  the  teeth  are  poor,  or  when  the  digestive  !J 
organs  are  weak.  ,; 

Maj.  A.  T.  Fisher,  in  his  book  on  ^'Through  Stable  and  Sad-^': 
die  Koom,"  expresses  his  belief  in  the  advantages  arising  from  n 
the  use  of  cooked  foods,  and  cites  his  experience  with  them  on  j 
a  mare  he  could  not  get  in  as  good  condition  as  he  wished.  iJ 
Never,  he  says,  was  a  change  more  rapidly  or  completely  ef-  fj 
fected  for  the  better.     She  at  once  began  putting  on  good,  firm  | 
flesh,  and  certainly  no  horse  could  have  been  more  fit  to  go,  or  f 
looked  in  higher  condition  than  she  did  in  the  course  of  a  very  j; 
few  weeks,  and  she  carried  him  brilliantly  through  the  rest  of 
the  season.      Despite  this  fitness,  her  dung  was  always  loose, 
so  much  so  as  to  be  an  annoyance,  especially  in  the  hunting 
field,  and  so  he  did  not  continue  the  use  of  the  cooked  food, 
though  convinced  of  its  efficiency. 

In  the  early  spring  some  horsemen  begin  to  soak  the  corn  for 
the  horses.  They  say  the  stock  like  it  better  and  that  it  is  more 
easily  masticated,  and  hence  better  digested.  The  horses  are 
said  to  sweat  less  than  when  fed  dry  corn.  The  corn  should 
soak  twelve  hours  but  not  longer  and  the  water  should  be 
changed  every  day. 

Roots  should  be  steamed  or  boiled,  both  to  make  them  less 
liable  to  produce  digestive  disorders  and  to  make  them  clean. 
In  North  Britain  the  custom  of  giving  steamed  roots  to  farm_ 
horses  is  much  approved,  especially  for  old  horses  with  defec- 


THE  PREPARATION  FOOD   OF.  /5 

tive  mastication.  Steamed  Swedish  turnips  and  potatoes 
are  used,  mixed  with  cut  oat-straw,  and  even  cut  wheat-straw, 
the  practice  being  to  give  this  food  from  the  middle  of  October 
to  the  end  of  May. 

Boiled  food  is  thought  by  many  preferable  to  steamed  food. 
Ihe  experience  of  people  in  Scotland  where  both  boiled  and 
steamed  food  was  fed  to  large  numt)ers  of  horses,  showed 
fewer  casualties  among  those  getting  the  boiled  food. 

W.  C.  Edwards,  M.  P.,  of  Rockland,  Ont.,  has  introduced  a 
system  of  feeding  horses  that  in  practice  he  has  found  to 
work  very  well.  It  is  substantially  as  follows  :  The  hay  is  cut 
and  put  into  a  box,  the  oats  are  ground  and  spread  over  this, 
and  bran  is  added.  The  whole  is  then  mixed  and  water  is  ap- 
plied until  the  mass  is  saturated.  It  is  then  allowed  to  stand 
for  twelve  hours  and  is  fed  in  two  feeds  per  day.  The  amount 
of  ground  grain  is  increased  or  lessened  according  to  the  ob- 
ject sought.  The  j-ation  is  given  to  colts,  brood  mares,  and 
working  horses.  As  the  coltc  advance  in  age  some  dry  oats 
are  given  to  them,  and  the  work  horses  get  a  dry  ration  at 
noon.  For  horses  that  are  not  to  be  driven  fast  and  long  dis- 
tances, not  more  than  one  feed  of  the  mixture  should  be  given 
during  the  day.  Mr.  Edwards  is  quite  satisfied  that  this  ration 
is  a  very  economical  one,  and  he  has  tried  it  now  for  several 
years.  The  distinctive  feature  of  this  system  is  the  amount  of 
water  applied.  It  has  been  frequently  recommended  to 
moisten  cut  food  given  to  horses,  but  we  seldom  find  it  recom- 
mended to  saturate  it  with  water,  and  then  allow  it  to  undergo 
a  sort  of  mild  fermentation.  This,  however,  Mr.  Edwards  has 
tried.  It  has  got  beyond  the  domain  of  theory  with  him,  for 
he  is  so  satisfied  regarding  the  advantages  of  the  system  that 
he  would  practice  it  with  all  the  horses  used  at  many  points  in 
connection  with  his  large  lumbering  business  if  this  were  prac- 
tical. The  results  have  been  most  marked  in  the  development 
of  young  horses. 


76  HORSE  FEEDING. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
Feeding  and  Rations. 

The  problem  in  feeding  a  horse  is  to  get  out  of  him  as  much 
work  as  possible  as  cheaply  as  possible. 

It  is  quickly  stated  but  the  answer  is  not  so  simple.  Many 
considerations  affect  it,  and  not  the  least  of  them  is  the  factor 
of  health.  The  well  horse  does  the  most  work.  The  dead 
horse  does  no  work. 

Then  there  is  the  factor  of  individuality,  that  which  in  man 
we  sometimes  speak  of  as  personal  equation,  '^he  time-worn 
saying  that  what  is  one  man's  meat  is  another  man's  poison^ 
has  not  equal  force  in  its  application  to  horses,  because  horses 
lack  the  mental  variations  that  affect  the  regulation  of  human 
lives,  yet  nevertheless  there  is  great  variety  in  the  equine  or- 
ganization, making  individual  characteristics  necessary  to  be 
taken  into  account  in  the  application  of  every  general  rule. 

Were  it  not  for  the  factors  of  health  and  individuality,  we 
could  regulate  horse-feeding  as  precisely  as  we  can  regulate 
the  feeding  of  a  locomotive  engine.  Knowing  the  composition 
of  the  various  foods,  the  proportion  of  digestible  elements  in 
each,  and  their  cost,  we  could  adapt  the  ration  with  almost  me- 
chanical accuracy  to  the  ends  to  be  accomplished.  Even  as  it 
is,  the  factors  of  health  and  indiviuuality  are  not  potent  enough 
to  vitiate  general  principles,  but  can  merely  modify  their 
application. 

Therefore  it  is  both  theoretically  and  practically  wise  to  as- 
certain what  are  the  true  principles  on  which  to  base  a  feeding 
ration,  irrespective  of  their  special  application.  In  other  words, 
it  is  useful  to  determine  what  ought  to  be  and  may  be  fed  to  an 
average  horse,  assuming  normal  conditions. 

The  scientific  aspect  of  this  truth  has  been  recognized  only 
within  the  last  half  of  the  present  centufy.  Previously,  the 
whole  world  had  been  content  to  answer  all  the  problems  in 


FEEDING  AXD   RATIONS.  •  77 

Stock-feeding  by  the  uncertain  and  unthrifty  teachings  of  un- 
organized experience.  Men  fed  their  animals  thus  and  so  be- 
cause their  fathers  had  fed  them  thus  and  so.  Now  and  then 
accidental  success  or  disaster  following  some  unscientific  or 
unintentional  experiment,  brought  into  irrational  favor  or  dis- 
favor some  particular  food.  Everywhere  prejudice  and  waste 
went  hand  in  hand* 

All  this  began  to  be  changed  a  little  more  than  thirty  years 
ago,  when  Bischof  and  Voit  in  Munich,  Henneberg  and  Stoh- 
manuin  W'eende,  Wolff  in  Hohenheim,  and  other  German  inves- 
tigators undertook  the  experiments  that  have  led  to  our  present 
theory  of  nutrition  and  methods  of  estimating  the  nutritive 
values  of  feeding  stuffs  and  planning  rations  for  domestic  ani- 
mals on  the  basis  of  the  quantities  of  protein,  fats  and  carbo- 
hydrates. The  feeding  standards  of  Woiff,  now  generally 
current,  have  been  in  vogue  for  twenty-five  years  or  there- 
abouts. It  is,  however,  only  twenty  years  since  the  first  ex- 
position of  the  subject  was  made  in  the  English  language,  and 
it  is  less  than  fifteen  years  since  the  details  were  made  availa- 
ble to  students  and  practical  farmers  in  the  United  states  ;  yet 
such  is  the  readiness  with  which  new  ideas  are  received  and 
put  in  use  in  this  country  that  for  the  past  ten  years  the  Ger- 
man feeding  standards  have  been  in  common  use  in  the  United 
States  and  the  method  of  calculating  rations  for  domestic  ani- 
mals on  the  basis  of  the  chemical  composition  of  feeding  stuflfe 
has  become  an  every-day  matter. 

To  illustrate  what  this  method  is  and  how  it  is  applied,  let 
us  work  out  an  example  on  the  basis  of  the  feeding  standard 
for  horses  as  determined  by  Wolff,  which  is  as  follows  : 

Founds  per  Day  Required  for  1000  lbs.  Live  Weight. 
Digestible  Constituents  of  the  Fodder. 
Total    Albu-    Total    Fat    Amount    Nutri- 
dry        min-     car-  of  nutri-    tive 

organic  oids      bohy-  tive  ratio 

matter   and      drates  matter 

Amid-  and 
es  fibre 

Horses  at  light  work  20.  1.5  9.5  0.4  11.4  1:7 
H'rs'satmedi'mw'k  21.  1.7  10.7  0.6  13.0  1:7 
Horses  at  hard  work  24,        2.4      12.5        0.8        15.7        1:6 


78  ,  HORSE  FEEDING. 

This  means  that  a  1,000  lb.  horse  at  light  work  will  thrive 
best  if  he  eats  20  lbs.  a  day  of  dry  organic  matter,  of  which  11.4 
lbs.  will  be  digestible,  being  made  up  of  1.5  lbs.  of  albmninoids, 
9.5  lbs.  of  carbohydrates,  and  0.4  lbs.  of  fat ;  and  that  in  food 
so  constituted  the  protein  would  be  to  the  carbohydrates  and 
fat  as  to  nutritive  value  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  7. 

Be  it  understood  that  these  are  standards  for  a  maintenance 
ration,  i.  e.  one  which  sustains  the  mature  animal  without  gain 
or  loss. 

With  the  foregoing  in  mind  let  us  examine,  for  instance,  the 
ration  of  the  street-car  horses  of  Toronto,  which  are  fed  7  lbs. 
corn-meal,  6>^  lbs.  chopped  oats,  Ij^  lbs.  wheat  bran,  11  lbs. 
cut  hay.  References  to  the  analyses  previously  given  will 
show  that  100  lbs.  of  each  of  these  foods  will  contain : 

Dry  organ-  Albumi-  Fibre  and  Fat 

ic  matter  noids  carbohydrates 

Corn 87.95  8.44  62.86  2.29 

Oats 86.09  8-76  46.11  3.94 

Wheat  bran 80.76  12.81  43.98  2.41 

Hay 80.49  3.21  41.17  1.32 

Applying  these  figures  to  the  number  of  pounds  of  each  food 
as  given  in  the  case  under  consideration,  makes  this  showing : 

Dry  organ-  Album-  Fibre  and  Fat 

ie  matter  iuoids  carbohydrafes 

7  lbs.  corn 615  •  0.59  5.80  0.16 

6  1^  lbs.  oats....  5.59  0.57  3.00  0.25 

I  1^  lbs.  brau...   1.21  0.19  0.66  0.04 

II  lbs.  hay 8.85  0.35  4.53  0.14 

Total     21.80  1.70  13.99  0.59 

Nutritive  ratio  1 :9 

Comparing  the  results  with  the  German  standard  we  see  that 
this  ratio  contains  0.8  pounds  more  of  dry  organic  matter  than 
the  standard  allows  for  horses  at  medium  work,  —  a  difference 
not  material.  In  protein  the  two  are  alike.  The  Toronto  ration 
has  a  considerable  excess  of  carbohydrates  and  a  very  slight 
deficiency  in  fat,  making  its  nutritive  ratio  1 :  9  instead  of  1 :  6 
as  in  the  standard.  (Remember  that  the  nutritive  ratio  is  found 
by  multiplying  the  fat  by  2>^,  adding  the  carbohydrates   and 


FEEDING  AND   RATIONS.  79 

dividing  by  the  protein.)  We  have  assumed  that  the  hay  is 
timothy.  If  it  were  clover,  which  has  a  larger  share  of  protein, 
the  nutritive  ratio  would  be  much  nearer  that  of  the  standard. 
If  timothy,  the  amount  of  oats  should  be  increased  and  corn 
meal  diminished  to  make  this  a  well  balanced  ration. 

This  illustration  will  suffice  to  show  how  the  theoretical 
value  of  any  ration  can  be  determined,  and  the  more  this 
method  is  applied,  the  more  intelligently  and  economically  will 
horse-owners  feed.  In  such  work  the  following  table,  copied 
from  Whitcher,  will  be  found  convenient : 
Weight  of  Grains. 

Per  %,  Bushel  Per  quart 

lbs.     oz.  lbs.     ozo 

Corn  meal 23        8  to 

Cotton  seed  meal 25        8  J         ,; 

Shorts n        4  0        11 

Middlings 18        0  \        A 

Ground  bats 12        0  i  o 

Gluten  meal 26        0  T  2 

Corn  and  cob  meal 22    .0  j         to 

Cracked  corn 21        0  1         ^^ 

Whole  oats 16        0  i  ^ 

Or  stated  in  another  way  : 

1  pound  of  corn  meal  equals 0.7       quarts 

1     "         ^'  cotton  seed     ''     .0.62o 

1     "        "shorts  " 1-^^  I' 

1    "        "middlings        "     0-90 

1     "        "oats  ''     l-^^_ 

1    "        "gluten  meal    "     ^'^^        ,^ 

1    '•        "  corn  and  cob  "     0.73  |^ 

1    "        "  cracked  corn   '     0.57  ^^ 

1    "        "  whole  oats     "     1-00 

The  choice  of  foods  for  combination  in  a  daily  ration  lor  an 
average  horse  is  affected  by  many  considerations,  among  whicli 
economy  and  convenience  are  prominent.  A  ration  that  is 
cheap  on  the  farm  may  be  costly  in  the  city.  The  family  horse 
in  town  will  rarely  get  a  taste  of  corn  fodder.  The  Minnesota 
horse  is  more  likely  to  have  linseed  meal  in  his  diet  and  the 
Southern  horse  is  raor^  likely  to  have  cottonseed  meal.  It  is 
manifestly  impossible  to  say  here  what  will  always  or  even  in 
most  cases  be  found  cheapest  and  best.  The  best  that  can  be 
done  is  to  describe  some  combinations  that  have  been  found 
national  and  economical. 


80  HORSE  FEEDING. 

Here  are  eight  rations  given  in  a  circular  by  the  New  York 
State  Agricultural  Society : 

Horses  at  light  or  medium  work. —  Per  1,000  Pounds 
Live  Weight. 

No  81-  20  pounds  silage,  10  pounds  clover  hay,  5  pounds 
wheat  bran,  3  pounds  corn  meal,  1  pound  linseed  meal.  Nutri- 
tive ratio,  1 :  6.1. 

NO.  82-  16  pounds  mixed  hay,  5  pounds  pulped  turnips,  6 
pounds  corn  meal,  4  pounds  wheat  bran. 

No.  83- 10  pounds  clover  hay,  10  pounds  wheat  straw,  5 
pounds  oats,  3  pounds  corn,  2  pounds  oil  cake.  Nutritive  ratio, 
1:7. 

No.  84-  8  pounds  clover  hay,  4  pounds  straw,  4  pounds  corn 
meal,  4  pounds  ground  oats,  6  pounds  wheat  bran. 

Horses  at  heavy  work.— Per  1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight. 

No.  85-  Add  5  pounds  corn  meal  and  5  pounds  ground  oats 
to  No.  84. 

No.  86-  10  pounds  timothy  hay,  10  pounds  oats,  5  pounds 
corn  meal,  5  pounds  linseed  meal,  Nutritiive  ratio,  1 :  5.4. 

No.  87-  10  pounds  silage,  5  pounds  timothy  hay,  5  pounds 
oats,  6  pounds  corn  meal,  6  pounds  linseed  meal.  Nutritive 
ratio,  1 : 5.4. 

No.  88-  8  pounds  clover  hay,  6  pounds  corn  fodder,  10 
pounds  corn  meal,  6  pounds  rye  bran,  2  pounds  linseed  meal. 

Youatt  gives  the  proportion  usually  fed  in  England  for  agri- 
cultural cart-horses  at  8  pounds  oats,  2  pounds  beans,  and  20 
pounds  chaff,  made  of  equal  parts  hay  and  straw  cut  together. 
The  grain  is  mixed  with  the  cut  seed.  By  this  means,  said 
Youatt,  the  animal  is  compelled  to  chew  his  food,  he  cannot 
waste  the  straw  or  hay ;  the  chaflf  is  too  hard  and  too  sharp  to 
be  swallowed  without  suflScient  mastication,  and  while  he  is 
forced  to  grind  that  down  the  oats  and  beans  are  ground  with 
it,  and  yield  more  nourishment ;  the  stomach  is  more  slowly 
filled  and  therefore  acts  better  on  its  contents,  and  is  not  so 
likely  to  be  overloaded.  The  increased  quantity  of  saliva 
thrown  out  in  the  lengthened  mastication  of  food  softens  it  and 
makes  it  fit  for  digestion. 

Street-car  and  omnibus  companies  of  course  feed  with  what 
their  managers  think  the  maximum  of  economy,  and  the  results 


FEEDING   AND  RATIONS.  81 

of  their  experience  are  therefore  well  worth  studying.  The 
street-car  horses  in  New  York  city  get  during  the  summer 
season  8  pounds  chopped  oats,  8  pounds  corn  meal,  12  pounds 
cut  hay.  During  the  winter  they  get  16  pounds  corn  meal,  12 
pounds  cut  hay.  The  winter  ration  was  formerly  used  during 
the  summer,  but  was  considered  too  heating.  It  is  too  strong 
in  fat  and  carbohydrates,  and  not  strong  enough  in  muscle- 
producing  matter.  It  is  said  by  the  company  that  its  horses 
wear  out  very  quickl}^,  lasting  on  an  average  only  four  years. 
This  is  due  to  some  extent  to  the  want  of  muscle-producing 
matter  in  their  food.  They  sweat  easily,  their  muscles  are  not 
firm  and  hard,  and  they  have  not  so  much  power  to  endure 
hard  work. 

In  another  American  city,  the  horses,  required  to  make  24 
miles  a  day  at  a  jog  trot,  in  heats  of  six  miles  each,  are  fed  al- 
most entirely  a  grain  diet,  being  given  only  enough  hay  to 
secure  good  digestion.  The  common  ration  is  crushed  corn 
and  wheat  bran  mixed  with  close  cut  hay.  Of  this  about  half 
a  bushel  is  fed  dry  at  one  mess.  Whole  hay  is  sometimes  fed 
and  the  grain  ration  is  varied  to  maintain  a  vigorous  appetite. 
With  this  feeding  the  horses  are  kept  in  vigorous  condition 
under  the  constant  and  severe  strain  of  the  car  service. 

The  rations  fed  street-car  horses  in  seven  British  cities  are 
given  as  follows  in  "  The  Book  of  the  Farm  " ; 

Lon-    Dublin    Glas-    Edin-    Birm-    Liv-    Lon- 
don cow      burgh    ing-      er-       don 
South  ham      pool    St. 

Oats 7  3  6  8  10  —        3 

Maize 7  14  11  4  6  12        12 

Beans  or  peas, 1  —  —  4  4  4         1 

Hay.... 11         12  8^        14  12  14        11 

Straw 3  —  i  2  —  —        — 

Bran —         )^  i^  _         _         1  1 

29        291^        27  32  32         31        28 

The  London  Omnibus  Co.  found  that  3,000  horses  fed  on  16 
pounds  of  ground  oats,  l}^  pounds  of  cut  hay  and  lOj^  pounds 
of  cut  straw,  did  as  much  work  and  kept  in  as  good  condition 
as  another  3,000  fed  on  19  pounds  of  whole  oats  and  13  pounds 
of  uncut  hay.  Thus  a  saving  of  6  pounds  of  feed  a  day  for 
work  horses  was  made  by  grinding  the  grain  and  cutting  the 


82  HORSE    FEEDING.  /; 

hay  —  a  saving,  in  the  feeding  of  6,000  horses,  amounting  to  \ 
$300  a  day.  | 

Henry  William  Herbert  said  :  "  For  a  gentleman's  carriage-  | 
horse  or  roadster,  at  ordinary  work,  in  its  own  stable,  8  pounds,  * 
€ind  from  that  up  to  10,  of  the  very  best,  richest  and  most  sue-  |j 
culent  hay  is  amply  sufficient,  with  12  quarts  of  good  heavy  | 
oats,  as  a  daily  allowance."  I 

Lyman  F.  Abbott  reports  the  following  ration  to  have  kept 
a  family  horse  in  Maine  in  fine  condition  and  good  spirits  for 
eight  years :  Morniog  at  six  o'clock,  1  quart  of  cracked  corn, 
}^  pound  new  process  linseed  meal,  1  quart  bran,  4  pounds  | 
hay.    Noon,  1  quart  of  cracked  corn  and  1  quart  of  bran,  j 
Night  ration  same  as  morning.    For  summer  feed,  oats  are  | 
substituted  for  the  main  part  of  the  corn,  and  the  night  ration  ^ 
of  linseed  meal  discontinued,  and  1  quart  of  bran  or  one  pint  8 
of  middlings  added.  j 

In  a  bulletin  of  the  Louisiana  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta-  jjl 
tion,  the  following  ration  is  suggested  for  work  horses  or  mules  J| 
weighing  1,000  lbs.:  Shelled  corn,  7  pounds;  oats,  3  pounds;^] 
peas,  3  pounds;  hay  chopped,  13  pounds.  The  ingredients  of  j. 
this  ration  are  mixed  together,  making  a  total  of  2G  pounds,  | 
and  divided  into  at  least  three  feeds.  The  writer  .says:  "Of  ji 
course,  the  preparation  of  this  would  necessitate  the  use  of  a  ; 
little  machinery  in  the  form  of  a  hay  chopper,  corn  crusher,  ;; 
etc.,  and  all  this  chopping  and  mixing  may  seem  very  unnec-  ;; 
essary  and  expensive,  but,  depend  upon  it,  on  a  large  planta-  i; 
tion,  or  in  fact,  in  any  place  where  a  large  number  of  work  stock  k 
are  to  be  fed,  the  first  cost  would  be  the  greatest,  because  I  >i 
have  no  hesitancy  in  sajing  that  what  would  be  saved  in  feed  "; 
and  the  reduction  of  mortality  in  work  animals  would  more  ji 
than  doubly  repay  for  any  extra  trouble  and  outlay."  i 

Speaking  of  a  trotter  going  through  a  racing   season,  Feek, 
the  trainer,  says :  *'  As  you  increase  his   work,   increase  his 
feed  proportionately.    Horses  differ.     Some  require  more  feed,  ■ 
hay  and  oats,  than  others  to  keep  them   strong  and  in  good 
flesh,  which  is  necessary  to  stand  a  campaign.     The  amount  of  j| 
oats  required  ranges  from  10  to  14  quarts,  with  plenty  of  good  }? 
timothy  hay  ;  perhaps  in  addition  a  little  cracked  corn,  rye  or 
wheat.    Corn  will  sometimes  loosen  a    horse's    bowels    too. 


FEEDING  AND   RATIONS.  83 

much;  if  so,  change  to  wheat  or  rye.  Do  not  use  your  muzzle 
any  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary,  as  I  think  there  are 
five  used  where  only  one  is  needed.  Rye  straw  is  very  hard 
to  digest,  and  if  your  horse  insists  upon  eating  it  you  had  bet- 
ter tie  him  up  after  he  has  finished  eating  his  hay  rather  than 
annoy  him  with  a  muzzle.  If  he  is  very  hearty,  give  him 
plenty  of  hay  and  he  will  eat  less  straw  ;  and  put  the  muzzle 
on  only  the  night  before  a  race  or  stifi"  work.  We  should  al- 
ways look  to  the  comfort  of  our  horses,  and  a  leather  muzzle 
placed  over  one's  head  on  a  hot  night  or  day  must  be  torture, 
and  the  wire  one  is  no  good  except  to  chafe,  as  he  can  eat 
through  it.  There  is  occasionally  a  gross  feeder,  or  pig,  as  he 
may  be  called,  on  whom  it  would  be  necessary  to  keep  a  muz- 
zle, as  he  never  knows  when  he  gets  enough,  and  you  could 
not  get  him  emptied  out  and  ready  in  a  week  for  fast  work.  In 
such  cases  I  think  it  better  to  bed  with  pine  shavings,  if  con- 
venient." 

W.  H.  Tourtellotte,  of  the  Bates  farm,  Watertown,  Mass., 
where  many  fine  horses  have  bden  bred,  said  in  a  private  letter 
written  in  June,  1891 :"  Some  of  my  brood  mares  I  can  keep 
in  condition  by  feeding  one  peck  of  grain  a  day  ;  others  will 
require  half  a  bushel.  This  is  made  up  of  two  thirds  bruised 
oats  and  one-third  shorts,  the  best  I  can  get.  I  give*  them  all 
the  hay  they  want  to  eat,  anywhere  from  25  to  40  lbs.  each  day. 
I  have  one  mare  that  has  twins,  and  I  feed  her  24  quarts  of 
grain  and  1  think  about  40  lbs.  of  hay.  My  weanlings  I  feed 
not  less  than  one  peck  of  grain  each  day,  if  they  will  eat  as 
much.  That  is  made  into  a  mash  fed  twice  a  day  morning 
and  night,  two-thirds  bruised  oats  and  one-third  shorts.  I  feed 
my  stallions  about  twelve  quarts  each  day,  —  four  quarts  of 
oats  and  one  of  corn  in  the  morning;  four  quarts  bruised  oats 
and  two  of  shorts  with  a  little  corn  at  night,  made  into  a  mash. 
I  never  had  one  to  which  I  have  been  obliged  to  give  more  than 
that  to  keep  him  in  good  condition.  I  water  all  my  stock  except 
the  driving  horses  and  stallions  twice  a  day ;  the  driving  horses 
and  stallions  I  water  four  or  five  times  a  day.  I  also  give  my 
stallions  a  small  allowance  of  grass  in  its  season,  twice  a  day." 

That  able  trainer,  Marvin,  says:  "Give  the  colts  all  they 
can  eat  up  clean,  but  it  is  not  so  easy  to  fix  thequantity  with 


84  HORSE  FEEDING.  "J 

..!■ 
horses.  Horses  differ  ia  the  amount  of  food  they  do  best  with,  '< 
just  as  they  differ  in  the  amount  of  work  they  require.  No  ab-  ^ 
solute  rule  can  be  laid  down.  One  horse  may  keep  right  on  i 
hay  alone,  while  another  will  require  ten  or  twelve  quarts  of  t 
oats  a  day  in  addition  to  keep  him  right.  The  only  rule  I  can  j| 
formulate  is  to  give  the  horse  in  training  all  that  is  necessary  ta  | 
keep  him  stout  and  strong.  A  horse,  to  be  in  proper  track  ^ 
condition,  will  carry  a  certain  fair  amount  of  flesh,  and  if  you  ij 
reduce  him  below  that  he  will  become  weakened."  J! 

To  a  correspondent  of  the  Country  Gentleman  asking  for  a  ii 
ration  for  horses  four  years  old,  weighing  1,000  pounds,  used| 
on  farm,  ration  to  be  from  timothy  hay,  oats  at  50  cts.  .a  bushel,  ^ 
bran,  oil  meal,  and  corn  meal  at  $20,  Professor  Stewart  an-  'i 
swered:  "  12  lbs.  cut  timothy  hay,  5  lbs.  cob  meal,  4  lbs.  wheat 'i 
bran,  1  lb.  linseed  meal.  This  will  be  a  good  ration  for  light  j^ 
work  in  the  winter.  When  they  are  put  to  hard  work,  add  1  lb»  j 
to  the  bran  and  1  lb.  to  the  linseed  meal.  This  is  a  day's  ration  i 
to  be  given  in  three  feeds,  smallest  at  noon,  or  two-fifths  may  ! 
be  given  in  the  morning,  one-fifth  at  noon,  two-fifths  at  even-  < 
ing,  and  if  these  rations  are  properly  fed,  all  stock  will  keep  in  j 
fine  condition."  '  J 

To  a  correspondent  of  the  Breeder's  Gazette  Professor  Henry '^ 
answered:  '' Eight  pounds  of  oats  are  a  light  grain  feed  per* 
horse  per  day,  while  a  peck  at  a  feed  three  times  a  day  is  too  t 
much  grain.  Wiih  oats  at  the  present  price  I  should  not  feed  I 
over  a  peck  and  one-half  a  day,  using  shorts  and  bran  mixed  i 
for  the  balance  of  the  grain  ration.  Feed  two-thirds  of  a  peck  "l 
at  a  feed  morning  and  night,  and  at  noon  give  five  or  six  pounds  \ 
of  bran  and  shorts  mixed.  The  variety  of  feed  will  be  a  good  j 
thing,  with  somewhat  reduced  expense." 

Here  is  other  editorial  advice:  "For  field  work,  not  travel^^ 
give  him  12  pounds  of  mixed  hay  daily,  whicbmay  wellinclude,» 
some  clover,  and,  as  do  the  English,  you  may  make  it  a  parti 
straw  and  12  pounds  grain,  made  up  of  one-half  to  two-thirds-l 
corn  or  corn-meal,  and  the  balance  preferably  in  oats  and  2l.\ 
little  old  process  linseed  meal,  to  keep  the  bowels  in  good  or-V 
der.  One-half  to  one  pound  daily  or  a  pound  or  two  of  braal 
may  be  given.  Some  give  ground  peas  and  oats,  a  good  food., 
Let  the  chief  diet  of  hay  be  at  night,  and  least,  if  any,  at  noon.'^f 

1 


FEEDING   AND   RATIONS.  85 

Still  anotner  writer  says  :  "  Variety  is  the  spice  of  life,  and 
nowhere  is  it  better  demonstrated  than  in  the  feeding  of  ani- 
mals ;  hence  it  is  a  good  plan  to  vary  the  mixture  of  concen- 
trated food,  giving  one  week  mixed  with  ground  oats,  the  next 
week  using  wheat  bran  wiih  the  meal,  and  it  is  beneficial  to 
the  horse  to  add  to  either  mixture  a  few  pounds  of  oil-meal, 
which  is  very  rich  in  albumen,  to  counteract  the  excessive 
starch  In  the  corn." 

To  the  owner  of  a  horse  who  complained  that  while  his  horse 
ate  ten  quarts  of  oats,  he  was  not  filled  out,  Professor  Stewart 
very  truly  said  that  not  half  of  the  horses  thoroughly  masticate 
oats.  Let  his  oats  be  ground  and  then  make  up  his  ration  as 
follows  :  7  pounds  of  ground  oats,  4  pounds  fine  bran,  1  pound 
'linseed  meal.  Let  this  be  well  mixed  together  dry.  A  part  of 
his  hay  should  be  run  through  a  cutter  to  mix  this  ground  food 
with.  The  12  pounds  ground  feed  should  be  mixed  with  6 
pounds  cut  hay,  without  wetting,  and  the  horse  will  eat  the 
hay  with  the  ground  feed  although  all  is  dry.  This  ground 
feed  and  cut  hay  should  be  given  morning  and  evening,  and  a  lit- 
tle long  hay  at  noon.  The  man  does  not  mention  the  weight  or 
age  of  his  horse,  or  how  much  he  is  ridden  a  day.  The  com- 
bination here  given  will  be  likely  to  give  him  a  start  in  filling 
up  and  rounding  out  his  form.  After  feeding  this  for  a  few 
weeks  it  will  probably  be  necessary  to  add  another  pound  of 
linseed  meal.  Feeding  it  dry  will  cause  better  mastication  and 
better  digestion.  The  oil-meal  will  cleanse  and  soothe  the  di- 
gestive organs  and  give  a  sleek  coat. 

A  contributor  to  another  paper  says  :  "My  oats  having  all 
been  fed,  I  was  buying.  Oats  were  dear,  and  ground  oats  sus- 
piciously full  of  hulls.  I  reasoned  whether  I  could  not  com- 
pound an  honest,  cheap  ration  from  wheat  bran,  oil-meal,  or 
cottonseed  meal,  and  corn  meal,  for  all  my  horses.  I  wrote  to 
Professor  E.  W.  Stewart.  He  replied  that  for  roadsters  oil, 
or  cottonseed  meal  two  parts,  corn  meal  two  parts  and  bran 
six  parts,  with  ten  parts  of  cut  hay  or  straw,  all  by  weight, 
was  about  right  for  twenty-four  hours  in  three  feeds.  Well, 
I  stopped  buying  oats  and  have  saved  money.  But  1  have  done 
more,  — the  particular  horse  mentioned  has  improved  as  a 
driver  and  continues  to  improve.    He  looks  and  acts  more  am- 


^6  HORSE  FEEDING.  ■)] 

bilious  and  has  a  better  disposition.    For  this  I  credit  myself. 
The  weighing  led  me  to  try  less  and  less  hay,  while  not  increas-  ^ 
ing  the  grain  ration,  with  the  above  favorable  result.  The  horse 
had  a  good  appetite  and  only  a  small  stomach.    As  a  conse-  j 
quence  he  was  uncomfortable,  cross,  and  indisposed  while  on  ^ 
the  road.    Now,  1  am  not    only  saving  money  in  grain,  but  in 
hay,  and  have  a  better  driver." 

Many  farmers  are  coming  to  think  that  they  feed  too  much 
grain.     One  of  them  in  Illinois  writes:  "I  believe  that  one-  j 
third  of  us  feed  too  much  grain  to  oui-  horses  at  all  times.    I  i 
know  of  some  men  who  do  not  expect  a  horse  to  eat  any  rough-  i 
ness  when  at  spring  and  summer  work.    In  fact,  they  give  him 
no  roughness  to  eat.    The  mangers  are  empty  for  weeks,  while 
so  much  grain  is  put  into  the  boxes  that  frequently  it  is  not^ali 
eaten.    To  make  the  matter  yet  worse  this  grain  is  exclusively 
of  corn,  ,or  almost  so.    Yet  these  men  wonder  why  their  horses 
grow  poor  and  do  not  stand  up  to  work.    Of  course,  none  of 
us  are  guilty  of  such  feeding ;  yet  I  believe  that  one-third  of 
us  feed  horses  too  much  grain,  and  especially  during  the  win- 
ter.   I  can  say  honestly,  and  can  bring  my  neighbors  to  wit-  j 
ness  the  truth  of  it,  that  no  horses  on  any  farm  in  the  county  j 
do  more  hard  work  than  mine,  and  that  they  are  not  so  poor  or  '■. 
as  badly  worked  down  as  at  least  three-fourths  of  the  farm  ' 
liorses  of  the  county.    They  are  above  the  average  of  Illinois  1 
horses  in  size,  —  big  enough  for  two  of  them  to  draw  a  14-inch  ; 
plow  easily.     Yet  when  at  hard  work  in  spring  or  summer  they  5: 
get  only  seven  or  eight  ears  of  corn  at  a  meal  or  a  little  more  j! 
than  a  gallon  of  oats.    1  hey  are  given  all  the  hay  they  want,  I. 
and  it  is  first-cbss  hay.    They  are  given  90  minutes  for  their  ;: 
noon  meal.    If  they  get  through  their  meal  in  an  hour,  as  they  jj 
generally  do,  they  have  30  minutes  at  least  for  digestion  before  j| 
they  begin  their  work.  ;! 

"Now  I  know  some  farmers  who  give  their  horses  as  much  jj 
grain  during  the  winter  as  I  give  mine  during  the  spring  and  J^ 
summer,  although  farm  horses  are  idle  the  greater  part  of  the    j 
time  during  the  winter.    The  horses  do  not  need  much  grain 
during  the  winter,  and  it  is  more  expensive  feed  than  rough- 
ness.   When  idle  and  fed  so  much  rich  food,  their  appetite  for 
it  is  cloyed  and  their  digestive  organs  are  debilitated  by  spring ; 


FEEDING   AND   KATIUNS.  (?< 

hence,  one  frequently  hears  their  owner  complain  that  they  do 
not  eat  well.  Neither  do  they  digest  well.  If  given  a  little 
grain  during  the  winter  they  have  a  keen  appetite  for  it  during 
the  spring  and  will  eat  readily  all  they  should,  and  will  digest 
it  well.  When  my  horses  are  not  at  work  during  the  winter, 
they  get  two  ears  of  corn  in  the  morning,  a  quart  of  oats  at 
noon,  and  two  ears  of  corn  or  a  little  bran  at  night,  j  They  are 
given  all  the  bright  hay  they  will  eat  and  are  comfortably 
housed.  They  meet  the  spring  fat  and  sleek,  and  with  muscles 
in  good  trim.  Their  grain  feed  is  increased  two  or  three  weeks 
before  hard  work  begins." 

Another  farmer  says :  "  I  would  discourage  the  practice  of 
heavy  grain  feeding  in  preparing  the  team  for  spring  work. 
This  so  overtaxes  not  only  digestion  but  the  entire  system  that 
the  ill  condition  of  these  organs  makes  it  impossible  many 
times  to  keep  up  flesh  even  if  a  large  amount  of  grain  be  given 
throughout  the  season.  The  better  way  is  to  give  light  day's 
work  for  a  time  before  and  after  spring  work  begins.  Then  a 
light  grain  ration  will  not  only  maintain  good  flesh  but  the  sys- 
tem will  also  be  retained  in  good  condition  so  that  as  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  require  large  day's  work  the  grain  ration 
may  be  increased  to  correspond  with  the  work  required  with- 
out overtaxing  the  system  and  getting  the  team  out  of  fix,  as 
many  times  results  when  grain  is  fed  heavily  for  a  long  time. 

"I  now  maintain  better  flesh  in  my  teams  on  8  ears  of  corn 
at  a  feed  than  formerly  on  12  ears,  because  they  are  never  over- 
fed and  with  impared  digestion ;  hence  they  really  get  more 
nourishment  out  of  the  8  ears  tha^  they  otherwise  would  out  of 
12  ears  or  more.  It  is  not  what  stock  eat  but  what  they  digest 
and  properly  assimilate  that  produces  strength  and  flesh.  My 
observation  leads  me  to  believe  many  farm  teams  grow  poo 
under  heavy  grain  feeding,  while  if  h^lf  the  amount  wer  J  fed 
judiciously  there  would  be  much  less  difiiculty  in  retaining 
reasonable  flesh.  While  there  is  no  doubt  that  oats  is  the  best 
muscle-former  and  gives  the  horse  greater  strength  and  en- 
durance than  any  other  grain  feed,  yet  if  supplies  of  this  are 
not  at  hand,  I  question  if  it  will  pay  the  average  farmer  to  buy- 
this  grain  for  his  teams  at  current  prices  to  supplement  or  disr 
place  cheap  corn  already  on  hand.      If  the  hay  consists  of  a. 


88  HORSE   FEEDING. 

mixture  of  timothy  and  clover  and  is  of  good  quality,  there 
should  be  no  difficulty  in  maintaining  a  fair  condition  in  the 
teams  if  corn  alone  constitutes  the  grain  ration.  If  pure  timo- 
thy is  fed,  especially  if  inclined  to  be  woody  from  over-ripe- 
ness, it  will  be  found  very  beneficial  to  add  some  oats  and  bran 
to  the  corn  for  the  stomach's  sake." 


THE  ART  OF  FEEDING.  89 

CHAPTER  V. 
The  Art  of  Feeding. 

To  feed  intelligently,  one  must  know  something  not  only  of 
the  nature  of  foods,  but  also  of  the  nature  of  the  feeder.  la 
other  words  the  equine  structure  must  be  understood,  so  far  at 
least  as  it  is  concerned  with  the  consumption  and  disposition  of 
food. 

The  first  thing  to  be  understood,  —  and  it  is  a  thing  of  prim- 
ary importance,  —  is  that  the  digestive  apparatus  of  the  horse 
extends  from  one  end  of  him  to  the  other.  Not  merely  the 
stomach  is  active  in  digestion,  nor  the  intestines,  but  also  all 
the  rest  of  the  channel  through  which  the  food  passes.  Even 
at  the  entrance  physiological  conditions  have  a  direct  bearing 
on  practical  feeding,  for  it  is  the  sense  of  smell  that  governs 
the  horse  in  taking  the  food.  This  sense  is  far  more  delicate 
than  is  commonly  thought,  —  so  delicate,  in  fact,  as  to  make 
it  essential  that  the  manger^  and  breeding  troughs  should  be 
kept  clean.  Untouched  food  should  be  removed  less  it  become 
sour,  when  most  horses  will  positively  refuse  to  eat  it. 

Supplementary  to  the  sense  of  smell  is  the  sense  of  touch, 
exercised  by  the  delicate  nerves  of  the  lips.  A  horse  will  care- 
fully select  the  food  in  the  manger  he  likes  best  and  shun  any 
part  he  dislikes.  That  is  one  reason  why  cutting  hay,  straw, 
etc.,  and  mixing  it  thoroughly  with  the  grain,  is  advantageous. 
He  will  be  the  less  likely  to  escape  eating  that  part  of  the  ra- 
tion he  does  not  relish. 

In  the  mouth  the  food  is  masticated  and  mixed  with  'the 
saliva  secreted  by  the  different  glands.  There  is  also  a  secre- 
tion of  mucus  in  the  mouth.  There  are  three  pairs  of  salivary 
glands  grouped  around  the  jaw  and  they  are  to  a  great  extent 
under  the  control  of  the  nervous  system.  The  saliva  is  secreted 
in  great  abundance,  and  has  a  peculiar  solvent,  lubricating 
power  on  the  food,  besides  a  chemical  action  converting  starch 


"90  HORSE  FEEDING.  ij 

into  sugar.  This  moisture  very  materially  assists  mastication,  ]' 
showing  us  how  necessary  it  is  that  eating  should  be  performed  ;' 
slowly,  allowing  the  food  to  mix  with  the  saliva.  Here  is  an-  I' 
other  reason  for  mixing  grain  with  cut  hay,  —  it  cannot  be  ]| 
bolted.  Fast  feeders  generally  suJ0Fer  from  indigestion ;  with  ;• 
them  the  stomach  has  to  perform  the  function  assigned  to  the  ji 
teeth  and  salivary  glands  in  addition  to  its  own.  If  the  grain  | 
and  hay  are  fed  separately,  give  the  hay  first,  especially  if  the  |j 
horse  is  very  hungry  or  exhausted,  because  he  must  take  '' 
longer  to  masticate  the  hay.  y 

From  the  mouth  to  the  anus  the  food  passes  through  what  j; 
may  be  called  a  tube,  the  first  section  of  which,  after  leaving  1| 
the  larynx,  is  known  as  the  oesophagus  or  gullet.  This,  like  jj 
all  the  rest  of  the  tube,  stomach  and  all,  is  lined  by  mucus  j| 
membrane  throughout  its  entire  course.  It  is  studded  with  |i 
glands  or  follicles,  which  secrete  a  viscid  fltiid  called  mucus..]! 
This  serves  to  lubricate  its  surface,  thereby  preventing  its  be-  '; 
ing  injured  by  substances  passing  along  it.  Mucus  also  assists  I 
in  the  formation  of  chyme  and  chyle,  and  the  process  of  diges-  | 
tion  in  general.  It  can  be  readily  seen  that  interference  with  |j 
these  secretions  along  the  alimentary  tube,  as  by  eating  food  k 
that  irritates  the  mucus  membrane,  produces  a  disordered  con-  , 
dition  unfavorable  to  the  digestive  process.  I 

The  dilation  or  expansion  of  the  alimentary  tube  known  as  i 
the  stomach  is  very  small  compared  to  that  in  other  ruminants,  | 
its  average  capacity  being  only  three  and  a  half  gallons.     Fur-  | 
thermore,  the  horse  has   one  stomach  where  the  ox  has  four,  i 
the  capacity  of  which  averages  from  50  to  55  gallons.    The  ox  jj 
and  the  other  ruminants  are  also  remarkable  tor  their  faculty  | 
of  swallowing  their  food  imperfectly  masticated,  causing  it  to 
return  over  and  over  again  for  remastication,  (the  process 
known  as  chewing  the  cud^)  previous  to  its    being  finally  swal 
lowed  and  passed  on  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  gastric  juice.    The  , 
horse  can  chew  his  food  but  once,  and  so  it  is  natural  he  should 
eat  coarse  food  slowly.    With  his  small  stomach  he  must  digest 
his  food  with  comparative  rapidity,  and  that  furnishes  another  : 
strong  arguqaent  to  the  advocates  of  mixing  grain  with  hay. 
They  point  out  that  when  hay  is  fed  alone,  especially  if  it  is  in 
the  form  of  meal,  it  is  liable  to  collect  in  the  stomach  in  a  glut- 


THE   ART  OF  FEEDING  91 

inous  ball  or  mass  that  prevents  the  penetration  of  the  digestive 
fluids  and  agents  to  the  centre  of  the  mass,  thereby  not  only 
preventing  complete  digestion  but  also  encouraging  colic  and 
other  troubles  of  the  digestive  system.  But  if  it  is  fed  with 
hay,  they  argue,  the  hay  divides  the  grain  and  admits  freer 
action  for  the  gastric  juice. 

To  test  the  matter,  at  one  of  the  experiment  stations  a  horse 
and  a  mule  were  fed  against  a  horse  and  a  mule  for  46  days. 
Nos.  1  and  2  received  two  parts  of  cob  meal  and  one  part  of 
bran  mixed  with  20  lbs.  of  cut  hay  ;  21  lbs.  of  the  meal  were 
eaten  daily.  Nos.  3  and  4  had  the  same  quantity,  but  the  hay 
and  grain  were  fed  separately. 

The  weights  were  as  follows : 

Mar.  Mar.  Apr.  Apr.  Apr.  Apr.  Apr.- 

13  20  2  9  16  27  29 

lbs.  lbs.  lbs.  lbs.  lbs.  lbs.  lbs. 

No.l,  horse 1126  1100  1105  1075  1070  1067  1072 

No.2,  mule 991       990  950  948  947       933  950 

No.3,horse 1200  1196  1175  1135  1131  1135  1123 

J^o.4,  mule 994      985  952  945  945       933  925 

At  the  beginning  of  the  trial  the  horse  and  mule  receiving 
their  foods  in  separate  rations.  At  the  end  of  the  trial  there 
was  but  47  lbs.  difference  in  their  weight.  The  horse  and  mule 
receiving  their*hay  and  grain  in  a  mixed  ration,  therefore,  held 
30  lbs.  over  those  receiving  their  rations  separately.  In  other 
words  mixing  seems  to  pay  for  horses. 

Professor  Michener  points  out,  however,  one  objection  to 
feeding  cut  hay  mixed  with  ground  or  crushed  grains,  and 
wetted  that  must  not  be  over-looked  during  the  hot  months. 
Such  food  is  apt  to  undergo  fermentation  if  not  fed  directly  af- 
ter it  is  mixed,  and  the  mixing  trough  even,  unless  frequently 
scalded  and  cleaned,  becomes  sour  and  enough  of  its  scrapings 
are  given  with  the  food  to  produce  flatulent  colic. 

In  the  natures  of  their  digestive  apparatus  may  be  found  the 
reason  for  the  essential  difference  that  should  be  made,  but  too 
often  is  not  made,  in  feeding  horses  and  cattle.  Bulky  un- 
prepared food  is  better  fed  to  the  cattle ;  concentrated, 
prepared  food  to  the  horses.  This  however,  is  a  general  rule 
and  not  to  be  applied  too  literally.    It  does  not  mean  that 


92  HORSE   FEEDING.  'i 

ii 
:i 

horses  should  be  fed  no  bulky  food  and  cattle  no  concentrated  ; 
food.  It  does  mean  that  on  the  whole  horse  food  should  be  more  i' 
concentrated,  less  bulky  than  cattle  food.  Horses  must  have  >! 
some  bulky  food  to  detain  the  grains  in  their  passage  through  i; 
the  intestinal  tract ;  bulk  also  aids  distention,  and  thus  mechan-  \ 
ically  aids  absorption.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  clear  that  an  j; 
excessive  supply  of  comparatively  innutritions  food  tocompen-  || 
sate  for  deficiency  in  quality  is  not  only  embarrassing  to  the  I 
stomach,  but  distresses  the  horse  by  its  bulk  and  weight.  ;l 
Farmers  particularly  do  not  pay  enough  attention  to  bulk  in  'j 
feeding  horses.  It  is  painful  to  see  a  horse  plunging  into  heavy  j 
work  with  the  stomach  abnormally  distended  with  bulky  food,  j 
Especially  for  fast  work  should  food  be  concentrated.  The  I^ 
slower  a  horse's  work,  the  more  can  he  be  fed  hay,  straw,  and  I 
fodder.  '\ 

Another  lesson  to  be  learned  from  the  size  of  the  stomach  is  | 
that  the  horse  should  be  fed  in  small  quantities  and  often.  He  I 
is  not  built  for  fasting.  To  keep  him  long  from  food  and  then  ! 
let  him  gorge  himself  results  in  distending  the  stomach,  cans-  Sj 
itig  irritation  of  that  organ,  over-taxing  the  digestion,  and  up-  |1 
setting  the  system  generally.  ' 

In  the  horse,  as  in  man,  when  the  food  enters  the  stomach ,  and  i 
is  admitted  to  the  solvent  action  of  the  secretions,  the  stomach  i 
is  in  constant  motion  effected  by  its  musculaj-  walls,  which 
keep  the  contents  in  a  constant  state  of  agitation,  and  bring  ,; 
every  portion  of  it  into  contact  with  the  walls  of  the  stomach,  !: 
so  as  to  be  subject  to  the  action  of  the  fluid  that  is  poured  forth  j 
from  the  walls  during  the  digestive  process,  and  the  movement  li 
of  the  stomach  continues  untill  the  organ  is  completely  emptied.'  | 
when  it  ceases  until  food  is  again  introduced.    This  is  work,  j{ 
and  not  the  lightest  of  work  either.    It  makes  a  draft  on  the 
horse's  energy  that  does  not  leave  him  enough  to  do  rapid  or 
severe  work  without  injury.    In  other  words,  the  horse,  like 
man,  cannot  work  well  on  a  full  stomach. 

But  the  task  of  digestion  does  not  end  with  the  stomach. 
Indeed,  in  the  horse  digestion  takes  place  principally  in  the  in- 
testines. The  stomach  begins  to  empty  itself  into  them  very 
soon  after  the  horse  starts  feeding,  and  the  process  continues 
rapidly  while  he  is  eating.    Afterward  the  passage  is  slower, 


THE  ART  OF  FEEDING.  93 

and  several  hours  are  required  before  the  stomach  is  wholly 
empty.  This  is  the  reason  why  food  should  be  fed  in  smaller 
quantities  to  horses  from  which  rapid,  severe  labor  is  to  be 
asked,  and  given  to  them  preferably  two  hours  before  they  are 
called  upon  to  perform  it.  Even  horses  intended  for  slow  work 
must  never  be  gorged  with  bulky  food,  slow  of  digestion,  be- 
fore going  to  labor. 

Some  foods  pass  through  the  stomach  quicker  than  others. 
Hay  and  straw,  for  instance,  travel  faster  than  oats.  It  follows 
that  when  not  mixed,  hay  should  be  fed  before  oats,  for  other- 
wise the  hay  would  drive  the  oats  forward  into  the  intestines 
before  the  stomach  had  performed  all  its  functions  upon  them, 
and  the  bad  results  of  indigestion  would  follow. 

In  noticing  the  character  of  different  foods  we  have  seen  that 
at  the  best  a  proportion  of  each  remains  undigested.  Therefore 
under  any  circumstances  a  part  of  the  food  passes  through  the 
animal  and  is  excreted.  By  feeding  the  horse  more  than  he  can 
digest,  we  not  only  waste  the  excess,  but  also  call  upon  his  di- 
gestive apparatus  for  an  unnecessary  expenditure  of  vital  force. 
It  follows  that,  paradoxically  as  it  may  seem,  we  can  actually 
feed  a  horse  so  much  as  to  make  him  poor.  Even  if  the  results 
do  not  go  so  far  as  that,  but  show  themselves  merely  in  a 
super-abundance  of  fat,  still  harm  is  done.  For  fat  is  fuel,  not 
muscle,  and  too  much  fuel  is  both  burdensome  and  dangerous. 
Too  mnch  fat  indicates  weakness  in  the  horse  as  well  as  in  the 
man.  Adiposity  predisposes  to  sickness.  It  has  been  well 
said  that  nothing  is  more  conducive  to  disease,  nothing  more 
fatal  to  speed  and  endurance,  than  a  full  fed,  plethoric  condi- 
tion of  the  system,  unless  it  be  the  other  extreme  of  involuntary 
starvation.  Among  the  great  knights  of  the  sulky,  Charles 
Green,  of  Babylon,  Long  Island,  has  been  noted  for  many  years 
as  a  superb  conditioner  of  lasting  campaigners.  His  uniform 
rule,  when  famous  horses  in  his  charge  like  Lucille,  Golddust, 
and  Sprague  Golddust,  seemed  to  loose  all  ambition  or  capacity 
to  improve  in  speed,  is  to  reduce  their  daily  allowance  of  feed 
to  one-third  the  usual  quantity  for  a  week,  and  then  to  restore 
the  full  amount.  The  stomach  and  digestive  organs,  he  claims, 
are  thus  thoroughly  rested.  In  all  cases,  he  affirms,  the  re- 
sults are  beneficial.    The  spirit  of  the  horse  is  renewed,  the 


94  HORSE  FEEDING. 

ambition  quickened,  and   the  capacity  for  speed  remarkably- 
increased. 

Many  horses  kept  for  pleasure  driving  are  greatly  injured  by 
over-feeding.    A  high-spirited  horse,  driven  only  a  few  miles  | 
occasionally,  should  not  be  fed  as  freely  as  an  animal  driven  | 
long  distances  daily.    He  does  not  need  so  much  and  cannot  !| 
properly  digest  and  assimilate  it.  J 

Indeed  there  is  little  more  important  in  the  management  of  I 
horses  than-the  judgment  required  to  maintain  a  just  balance  ( 
between  food  and  work,  as  indicated  by  the  condition  of  the  ' 
animal,  and  the  horse  owner  should  be  prompt  to  increase  or  | 
diminish  the  allowance  of  concentrated  food  in  accordance  with  i; 
the  work  required  of  the  horse.  The  greater  the  exertion  the  I 
greater  the  waste  of  animal  tissue,  and  the  necessity  of  an  in-  I 
creased  supply  of  nutricious  food.  Should  a  horse  require  'j 
more  food  than  usual  to  supply  the  extra  waste  of  tissues  '■ 
caused  by  hard  work,  give  it  by  all  means,  but  let  the  excess  ,■ 
be  in  albuminoids,  (i.  e.  in  grain  rather  than  in  hay,)  let  the  ' 
horse  be  fed  of tener  and  not  in  increased  quantities  at  a  time,  ^ 
and  let  the  change  be  made  gradually.  II 

The  attempt  often  made  by  novices  to  put  horses  in  condition  J 
for  hard  work  by  suddenly  increasing  the  feed,  always  ends  ' 
disastrously.     '  ii 

More  food  is  needed  in  cold  weather  when  the  body  is  ex-  ■; 
posed  to  rapid  abstraction  of  heat  or  vicissitudes  of  temperature  ; 
than  in  warm  seasons. 

An  animal  in  poor  condition  needs  more  food  to  enable  him  j 
to  perform  a  certain  amount  of  work  than  one  fairly  fat.  ;| 
When  an  enforced  idleness  from  lack  of  work,  or  wounds,  in-  ,1 
terferes  with  the  horse's  activity,  a  continuance  of  full  rations  ij 
of  concentrated  food  predisposes  to  and  frequently  results  in  '\ 
fatal  disease,  such  as  lymphangitis,  azoturia,  etc.  j 

Professor  Michener  says  that  when  a  horse  is  to  do  less  jj 
work,  or  rest  entirely  from  work  a  few  days,  he  should  receive  ]■ 
less  feed  ;  and  he  thinks  if  this  were  observed  even  on  Satur-  ' 
day  night  and  Sunday  there  would  be  fewer  cases  of  "  Monday  J 
morning  sickness,"  such  as  colics  and  lymphangitis.  )■ 

Dr.  C.  E.  Page  observes  :  "  It  is  quite  customary  to  keep  up  ', 
the  feed  of  trotting  horses  between  seasons,  permitting  them  j 

Ji 


THE   ART  OF  FEEDING.  95 

to  become  somewhat  fat,  and  then  when  they  are  to  be  fitted 
for  sharp  work,  this  fat  is  worked  off  and  out  while  muscle  is 
being  worked  on.  In 'other  words,  the  horse  is  forced  to  take 
on  disease  by  feeding  him  in  excess  of  his  work,  and  then  is 
cured  bv  restoring  the  just  balance  between  work  and  feed. 
This  is,  in  my  judgment,  very  bad  policy,  proving  in  the  end 
exhaustive  of  vital  force,  ruining  a  great  many  valuable  horses 
and  iojuriug  all  that  are  thus  treated.  '  Little  work,  little 
feed,'  should  be  the  rule;  unless  indeed,  the  horse-owner  feels 
the  necessity  of  keepiug  up  the  appearance  of  his  animals, 
whether  they  get  much  exercise  or  not." 

On  the  other  hand  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  horse, 
on  getting  an  easier  time  of  it  as  regards  labor,  is  building 
muscle  and  tissue,  and  in  every  way  repairing  himself  for  an- 
other turn  of  hard  work,  and  the  extra  quantity  of  feed  that  he 
consumes  during  the  easier  time,  if  not  too  great,  is  often  a 
decided  gain,  and  not  a  loss  to  the  animal's  owner;  for  by  it 
he  is  kept  in  proper  condition,  and  is  in  better  saleable  form 
at  any  time  his  owner  may  want  to  turn  him  into  money. 

Over-feeding  sometimes  causes  refusal  to  eat.  Short  rations 
for  a  dav  or  two  will  remedy  this.  The  manger  of  an  animal  in 
this  condition  should  be  watched,  and  whenever,  after  a  reas- 
onable allowance  of  time  for  eating,  the  manger  is  found  to 
contain  untouched  food,  that  food  should  be  immediately  re- 
moved, the  succeeding  feed  being  reduced  a  corresponding 
quantity.  So  treated  the  auim  il  is  allowed  just  as  much  food 
as  it  will  eat  up  clean.  There  is  no  more  certain  way  to  cause 
an  animal  to  refuse  its  food  than  to  give  more  than  is  wanted 
and  then  leave  the  surplus  in  the  manger  from  one  meal  time 
to  another.  Most  horses,  however,  will  eat  more  than  is  good 
for  them  if  they  have  the  chance,  and  therefore  should  not  be 
fed  all  they  will  eat. 

It  often  occurs  that  food  is  refused  for  no  apparent,  reason, 
the  animal  at  the  same  time  becoming  thin  and  weak,  simply 
for  want  of  fdod  enough.  Dr.  F.  E.  Rice,  in  discussing  the 
subject  in  a  bulletin  of  the  Rhode  Island  Ag.  Exp.  Station,  says 
it  is  in  these  cases  that  the  numerous  "  condimental"  and  other 
proprietary  foods  appeal  to  the  owner — and  in  many  cases  to 
the  animal.    Now  it  has  been  proved  repeatedly  that  the  nutri 


96  HORSE   FEEDING. 

tive  value  of  these  foods,  as  compared  with  the  common,  un- 
combined  food-stuffs,  is  not  increased  by  the  condiments  they 
contain^  but  on  the  other  hand  it  is  true  the  condimental  foods 
are  not  without  value,  coming  from  the  fact  that  such  foods  do 
rouse  the  appetite,  and  by  exciting  an  increased  flow  of  the 
digestive  juices,  they  do,  for  a  time  at  least,  give  an  impetus  to 
nutrition. 

The  following  formula  is  given  as  one  that  is  useful  in  the 
greater  number  of  cases:  Ground  or  crushed  oats  and  corn 
meal,  of  each,  5  pounds  ;  oil  meal,  ^  pound,  common  table  salt. ; 
2  ounces.  If  the  animal  seems  in  need  of  a  tonic  or  is  troubled 
with  intestinal  worms,  there  may  be  mixed  with  each  ration  as 
above  given,  a  desertspoonful  of  powdered  gentian,  and  a  small 
teaspoonf  ul  of  the  dried  sulphate  of  iron ;  these  are  to  be  had 
of  any  druggist.  \ 

If  as  sometimes  occurs,  the  animal  refuses  the  ration  contain-  •■ 
ing  the  iron  and  the  gentian,  a  little  starvation  is  all  that  will 't 
be  required  to  cause  him  to  take  it;  the  dislike  ceases  once  the  j 
animal  has  been  persuaded  to  take  of  the  mixture.  i; 

Of  course  the  food  ingredients  may  be  changed  to  meet  the  \ 
indications  of  individual  cases,  and  as  intelligence  may  direct.  '; 

All  of  the  so-called  condimental  foods  are  based  on  attempts  'I 
to  apply  the  principles  included  in  the  foregoing  formula,  but  j; 
the  results  of  these  attempts  have  been,  in  some  cases,  an  abso-*< 
ute  failure,  the  "food,"  as  shown  by  analyses  made  at  the  ii 
Connecticut  Experiment  Station,  containing  less  nutriment,  ■. 
pound  for  pound,  than  common  bran.  And,  as  noted  in  the  j| 
bulletin  of  the  Station  referred  to,  "  the  extravagant  claims  'i 
made  by  the  proprietors  of  these  foods  may  weli  excite  suspi-  -i 
cion  as  to  their  value."  j 

Dr.  Rice  quotes  from  Professor  Stewart  the  following  form-  i 
ula,  said  to  be  held  in  high  repute  in  England.  It  is  given  here  'j: 
as  it  shows  rhe  real  vaiue  of  the  better  class  of  the  so-called  ii 
condimental  foods :  ' 

..:    .'    i 

Linseed  oil-cake 25 

Flax-seed 10 

Molasses 20 

Corn  mpal 40 


HORSE   FEEDING.  97" 

Ground  tumeric  root 11-2 

Ginger 01-8 

Carra way  seed 0  1-8 

Powdered  gentinn 01-2 

Cream  of  tartar '  01-8 

Sulphur 1 

Common  Salt 1 

Coriander  seed 0  5-8 

Total 100 

Boil  the  flax-seed  in  ten  gallons  of  water  until  it  forms  a 
thin  mucilage;  then  stir  in  the  tumeric,  ginger,  carra  way, 
gentian,  cream  of  tartar,  sulphur,  common  salt  and  coriander;, 
now  add  the  molasses,  then  the  corn  meal  and  ground  oil-cake,, 
stirring  it  well  together.  If  it  is  desired  to  keep  it  long  it  may 
be  dried  in  a  hot-air  chamber  or  oven  at  about  steam  heat, 
I  after  which  it  will  require  grinding  for  convenient  use ;  but 
[the  materials  may  be  ground  together  in  their  natural  state  if 
manufactured  for  commercial  purposes. 

The  domestic  animals,  no  less  than  man,  require  a  variety 
of  food  to  make  healthful  and  nutritious  diet.  Watch  a  horse 
or  cow  feeding  in  pastures  with  various  grasses.  It  is  rare 
that  one  alone  will  be  eaten  unless  it  is  far  better  than  the 
others.  There  will  be  a  bite  here  and  another  there,  making 
altogether  a  more  palatable  mouthful  than  could  either  be 
alone.  In  the  stables  this  choice  is  not  given,  as  the  hay  is 
generally  bought  for  its  uniformity,  while  a  mixture,  which 
really  makes  the  best .  hay,  is  considered  inferior.  But  even 
in  the  stable  some  variety  is  now  regarded  as  necessary  by  the 
best  horsemen.  Winter  feed  is  mostly  too  dry.  It  is  wonder- 
fully benefited  by  adding  a  few  roots. 

But  be  careful  to  change  foods  gradually.  If  a  horse  has 
been  accustomed  to  oat«,  a  sudden  change  to  a  full  meal  of 
3orn  will  almost  always  sicken  him.  Even  if  the  nature  of 
:he  food  is  not  changed,  but  its  quantity  is  to  be  increased  or 
iiminished,  do  this  gradually. 

Food  should  be  of  a  more  laxative  nature  when  the  horse  is 
:o  stand  for  some  days. 

Delicate  feeders  must  be  tempted  to  take  their  rations,  and 
;uch  should  never  be  fed  too  strongly  at  one  time.  A  little 
inseed  boiled  to  a  jelly  and  mixed  with  the  corn  is  seductive- 


98  HORSE  FEEDING. 

Hay    damped    and  salted  will  tempt  others.    Tick-beans,    a 
double  handful,  are  a  relish  in  weakly  subjects  ;  pale  malt  for 
the  convalescent  or  indisposed ;  damp  bran  and  oats  areengag:- 
ing  for  others.    Some  breeders  give  carrots  and  tares  in  small  i 
quantities.  ^ 

As  to  the  times  for  feeding,  we  have  already  seen  why  th©p 
horse  should  be  fed  frequently.  Three  meals  a  day  are  thex 
least  number  permissible,  and  many  hold  four  to  be  better.  To  • 
feed  four  times  in  the  day  diminishes  the  interval  of  fasting, ,! 
and  gives  the  horse  no  chance  to  get  ravenous.  The  hours,  ot^ 
course,  depend  on  the  horse's  work,  and  no  general  rule  can  be^ 
laid  down.  In  English  stables  the  custom  is  :  6  a.  m.  Waterj^ 
and  feed  with  a  little  hay.  7  a.m.  Feed  with  grain.  12  mJj 
Feed  with  grain.  5.30  p.  m.  Water  and  hay.  6.30  P.  m.  Fee(^ 
with  grain.  ;! 

The  heaviest  feed  should  be  at  night.  Then  the  bulk  of  thei 
hay  should  be  given,  but  see  that  it  is  not  enough  to  make  ai 
greedy  horse  lose  any  of  his  sleep.  It  is  both  inhumane  and! 
dangerous  to  give  an  extra  allowance  in  the  morning  to  a  horses 
that  has  a  hard  day's  work  before  him.  That  practice  may 
result  in  a  stomach-blout.  The  horse  starts  out  feeling  full  andl 
oppressed ;  he  soon  grows  dull  and  listless,  and  fails  to  respondl 
to  the  whip ;  he  sweats  profusely,  tries  to  lie  down ;  his  headl 
is  carried  forward  and  downward ;  or  if  he  is  checked  up  he  ia^ 
heavy  on  the  reins,  stumbles  or  blunders  forward,  and  often^ 
fails.  The  pain  and  distress  are  constant,  and  the  end  is  often^ 
fatal.  '      [I 

Better,  then,  "  brace  your  horse  up",  if  need  be,  by  increase 
ing  his  supper  somewhat  the  night  before.  If  he  is  to  travel  I 
all  day,  and  it  is  likely  to  be  hard  to  find  a  place  to  bait  hiran 
take  along  a  nose-bag.  Were  that  appliance,  too,  used  on  th« 
farm  more  than  it  is,  farmers  would  have  healthier  horses. 

One  of  the  most  common  errors  of  feeding,  andoneProfesson 
Michener  says  produces  more  digestive  disorders  than  anji 
other,  is  to  feed  too  soon  after  a  hard  day's  work.  This  mus1> 
never  be  done.  If  a  horse  is  completely  jaded,  Michener  says 
it  will  be  found  beneficial  to  give  him  an  alcoholic  stimulant 
when  he  goes  into  the  stable.  A  small  quantity  of  hay  maji 
then  be  given  him,  but  his  grain  should  be  withheld  for  an 


THE  ART   OF  FEEDING.  99 

hour  or  two.  If  he  is  but  ordinarily  tired,  let  him  stand  unti' 
he  is  cool  and  comfortable  before  giving  him  the  grain. 

On  the  other  hand,  Feek,  the  trainer  —  and  his  experience 
gives  his  words  weight  —  declares  that  though  he  formerly  used 
cherry  wine,  brandy,  etc.,  as  a  stimulant  to  give  a  horse 
between  heats,  he  discarded  all  of  these  years  ago  because 
their  after  effect  is  so  bad.  They  have  the  same  effect  on  a 
horse  as  on  a  man  —  first  stimulating,  then  depressing.  When- 
ever any  stimulant  is  necessary,  Feek  uses  a  homoeopathic 
preparation,  a  few  drops  on  the  tongue,  which  he  says  has 
helped  him  to  win  many  a  long  and  hard  race. 

The  best  nourishment  he  knows  of  for  a  horse  between  heats 
Q  case  one  is  needed,  say,  after  a  horse  has  gone  two  or  three 
hard  heats  and  has  become  heated,  is  given  by  a  quart  or  two 
of  clean  oats.  Dampen  them,  put  them  In  a  sieve  and  spread 
them  out,  so  the  horse  cannot  get  a  large  mouthful  at  once. 
This  should  be  repeated  after  each  heat  if  the  race  lengthens 
out  to  five  or  six  heats.  Feek  says  he  has  used  oatmeal  gruel 
and  it  is  good  for  those  horses  that  will  eat  it,  but  his  experience 
is  that  very  few  horses  like  it  and  any  horse  will  eat  oats. 
''  We  all  know  that  when  a  man  is  tired  a  few  mouthfuls  in  the 
stomach  will  build  him  up  wonderfully,  and  it  is  the  same  with 
a,  horse." 

But  it  does  not  follow  that  because  a  little  food  under  such 
circumstances  is  a  good  thing,  much  will  be  better.  On  the 
contrary,  violent  exercise  immediately  after  eating  any  consid- 
Brable  amount,  ruins  horses  and  causes  distress  in  all  animals 
that  are  put  to  it.  And  though  every  man  of  reflection  knows 
that  violent  exercise  immediately  after  eating  causes  a  pain  in 
his  own  stomach,  yet  many  will  give  horses  the  most  solid  food 
just  before  beginning  the  labors  of  the  day. 

It  is  best  to  have  fixed  hours  for  feeding,  and  whatever  they 
may  be,  adhere  to  them  as  far  as  possible.  The  horse  has  a 
remarkable  faculty  for  telling  time,  particularly  meal  time, 
and  to  delay  makes  him  restless.  Regularity  of  feeding  is  as 
valuable  a  thing  to  a  horse  as  it  is  to  a  man.  Neither  will  long 
have  perfect  digestion  if  irregularity  in  meals  is  frequent. 


100  HORSE   FEEDING. 

CHAPTER  Vr. 
Watering. 

Water  is  the  most  important  food  a  horse  takes.  It  is  a  food 
just  as  much  as  hay  or  grain  is.  It  is  by  far  the  largest  consti- 
tuent of  a  horses  body,  it  is  wasted  and  consumed  like  the  other 
elements,  and  like  them  it  must  be  replaced. 

Water  is  the  one  food  that  all  animals  share  in  common. 
Note  particularly  that  it  is  the  one  food  that  horses  and  men 
take  under  like  conditions.  Treat  the  horse  in  watering,  then, 
as  you  would  treat  yourself. 

Impure  water  poisons  you :  it  will  poison  the  horse.    Ice- 
water  threatens  your  health  and  even  your  life:  it  may  injured 
your  hdrse  or  kill  him.    You  drink  frequently  and  in  small. 
<iuantities  :  let  your  horse  do  the  same. 

When  you  are  heated,  you  take  a  few  swallows  and  then  if 
you  have  self  control,  forbear:  your  horse  has  less  intelligence! 
and  self  control  than  you  have ;  therefore  after  letting  him 
have  a  few  swallows,  make  him  forbear. 

The  surest  thing  to  make  you  sweat  freely  during  a  hot  day 
is  to  drink  freely  duriug  the  morning  :  if  you  fill  your  horse 
before  he  goes  to  work,  he  will  sweat  freely. 

And  so  we  might  go  on  comparing  watering  horses  to  water- 
ing men,  laying  down  the  same  rules  under  almost  all  the  con- 
ditions, but  not  quite  all.  In  one  physiological  feature  we  have 
seen  that  the  horse  is  unique,  —he  has  an  exceptionally  small! 
stomach.  This  spoils  the  completeness  of  our  equation  by» 
making  it  preferable  with  the  horse,  to  water  before  eating] 
rather  than  after.  We  have  seen  that  long  after  a  horse  endsi 
his  meal  there  is  undigested  food  in  his  stomach.  Give  himi 
water  then  and  it  is  liable  to  drive  this  on  into  the  intestines,, 
resulting  not  only  in  waste  of  food,  but  also  in  indigestion  an(" 
worse  evils,  such  as  flatulant  or  spasmodic  colic  or  fatal  enter 
itis.    It  has  been  found  that  water  passes  through  the  stomac' 


WATERING.  101 

very  quickly,  so  that  if  given  before  food  it  gets  out  of  the  way 
of  the  food.  But  if  given  after  the  food,  besides  pushing  that 
ahead  faster  than  it  would  naturally  go,  more  of  the  water  is 
detained  in  the  stomach  than  should  be,  diluting  the  gastric 
juice  and  giving  another  cause  for  indigestion. 

To  this  theory  has  been  applied  the  test  of  experiment.  A 
horse  was  fed  about  four  quarts  of  whole  oats  and  immediately 
after  given  water  to  drink.  Soon  after  the  horse  was  killed  and 
cut  open.  Scarcely  one  quart  of  oats  was  found  swimming  in 
the  water  in  the  stomach,  the  remaining  three  quarts  having 
been  forced  from  the  stomach  into  the  intestines  by  the  water. 
Another  horse  was  given  water  first  and  then  about  four  quarts 
of  oats.  Fifteen  minutes  after  feeding,  this  horse  was  killed 
and  cut  open.  The  entire  quantity  of  oats  was  found  in  the 
stomach  and  they  had  already  become  attacked  by  the  diges- 
tion. 

Nevertheless,  this  question  of  watering  before  or  after 
eating,  is  not  yet  settled.  The  weight  of  opinion,  to  be 
sure,  has  of  late  years  been  in  favor  of  before  eating, 
and  the  arguments  on  that  side  seem  the  more  rational.  Yet 
trials  made  recently  by  Professor  Sanborn  of  the  Utah  Station 
lead  him  to  the  conclusion  that  horses  should  be  watered  before 
and  after  eating.  He  found  that  horses  watered  before  eating 
grain  retained  their  weight  better  than  when  watered  after 
feeding  grain.  Horses  watered  before  feeding  had  the  better 
appetite  or  ate  the  most.  Horses  watered  after  feeding  graiuj 
in  ratio  to  the  food  eaten,  seemed  to  digest  it  as  well  as  those 
watered  before  feeding.  In  a  prior  trial  there  was  a  small  ap- 
parent advantage  in  favor  of  feeding  after  watering. 

An  idea  prevails  among  horsemen  that  horses  should  never 
be  watered  of tener  than  three  times  a  day.  That  idea  is  wrong 
and  in  its  application  is  brutal.  It  has  been  well  said  that  feed- 
ing a  horse  principally  on  grain  and  driving  him  five  hours 
without  water  is  like  giving  a  man  salt  mackerel  for  dinner 
and  not  allowing  him  to  drink  before  supper  time  —  very  un- 
satisfactory for  the  man.  If  you  know  anything  about  the 
care  of  horses  and  have  any  sympathy  for  them  you  will  water 
them  as  often  as  they  want  to  drink  —  once  an  hour  if  need  be. 
By  doing  this  you  will  not  only  be  merciful    to  your  animals 


102  HORSE  FEEDING.  ■■ 

] 

but  you  will  be  a  benefactor  to  yourself,  as  they  will  do  more  | 
work,  they  will  look  better  and  live  longer.  Learn  from  the  j 
experience  of  street  car  companies,  whose  employees  water  j 
their  horses  every  hour,  and  sometimes  of tener,  when  they  are  ,' 
at  work.  i 

In  a  state  of  nature  the  horse  drinks  no  more  than  he  needs  ! 
and  no  more  than  is  good  for  him.    It  might  be  concluded  that  j 
if  while  in  the  service  of  man  he  had  access  to  water  at  all  times,  I 
he  would  likewise  regulate  his  drinking  rightly,  and  so  he  *. 
would,  were  it  not  for  the  fact  suggested  above,  that  his  power  i 
of  self  control  is  not  great  enough  to  keep  him  from  drinking  ^ 
from  excess  when  he  is  heated.    This  is  the  main  danger  from  J 
keeping  a  trough  of  water  in  the  stable  where  the  horse  can  j 
always  get  at  it,  — a  practice  that  has  many  commendable  fea-  j 
tures  and  should  be  adopted  when  possible,  for  the  danger  re-  j 
f erred  to  can  be  easly    obviated  by  turning  off  the  water  or 
covering  over  the  trough  after  the  horse  has  had  a  few  sips 
from  it  in  coming  in  from  a  hard  day's  work  or  a  fast  spin. . 
Such  a  trough,  however,  should  be  fed  by  a  constantly  runninfe,^ 
stream,  or  be  emptied  three  times  a  day,  and  it  must  be  kept 
clean.    Horses  detest  stale  and  filthy  water,  and  will  long  suf- 
fer the  tortures  of  thirst  before  they  will  drink  it.  J 

They  would,  indeed,  refuse  all  impure  and  poisonous  water  t. 
if  their  senses  of  smell  and  taste  were  equal  to  detecting  the  *■ 
noxious  elements.  But  though  these  senses  are  extremely  del-  j; 
icate,  they  can  no  more  tell  than  man  can  what  Is  safe  water  i 
and  what  isn't.  The  scientific  investigations  of  these  later  f. 
years  have  taught  us  that  some  of  the  waters  pleasantest  to  the  t 
taste  are  most  dangerous  to  health  and  life.  The  sweetest  of  J 
well-water  is  often  the  most  deadly.  j 

We  have  not  learned  how  to  detect  the  poison  without  the  ij 
chemist's  aid,  but  we  have  learned  where  it  lurks.     We  know  ' 
shallow  wells  and  ponds  close  to  barn-yards,   manure-heaps,  ^ 
cess-pools,  and  any  rotting  vegetable  matter,  are  almost  sure  • 
to  contain  the  germs  of  disease,  causing  diarrhcBa,  dysentery, 
and  other  diseases  of  stock,  in  many  instances  resulting  in  death. 
Therefore  the  safe  way  is  to  fill  the  barnyard  trough  with  run- 
ning water  brought  from  a  distance,  not  to  water  the  horse  in 
stagnant  pools,  and  to  be  as  careful  of  what  he  drinks  as  you  are 


.     WATERING.  103 

of  what  you  drink.  If  you  will  remember  that  extreme  thirst 
would  induce  you  to  drink  pretty  bad  water,  and  that  if  you 
did  not  use  your  judgment  you  would  often  drink  bad  water 
that  looks,  smells  aLd  tastes  good,  you  will  see  that  it  is  not 
safe  to  let  your  horse  drink  anything  you  can  make  him  drink. 
Give  him  rather  only  what  you  know  he  should  drink. 

Cool  water  is  good  for  both  man  and  beast.  Ice-cold  water 
is  dangerous.  It  is  neither  necessary  nor  wise  to  coddle  a 
horse  to  the  extent  of  heating  everything  he  drinks,  nor  even 
of  warming  ordinarily  cool  water  by  adding  some  hot,  but  it  is 
desirable  to  have  the  yard  trough  where  the  sun  will  strike  it 
in  the  winter  morning,  and  one  ought  not  to  bring  the  bucket 
too  quickly  from  the  well.    Let  it  stand  till  the  chill  is  off. 

The  horse  needs  more  water  in  hot  weather  than  in  cold  more 
when  be  is  working  than  when  slehedi  i.j 

Professor  Michener  says  it  is  a  popular  fallacy  that  if  a  horse 
is  warm  he  should  not  be  allowed  to  drink.  The  claim  that  the 
first  swallow  of  water  ' 'founders"  the  animal  or  produces  colic, 
is  erroneous.  No  matter  how  warm  a  horse  may  be,  it  is  al- 
ways entirely  safe  to  allow  him  from  six  to  ten  swallows  of 
water.  If  this  is  given  on  his  going  into  the  stable,  he  should 
be  given  at  once  a  pound  or  two  of  hay  and  allowed  to  rest  an 
hour  before  feeding.  If  water  be  then  offered  him,  it  will  in 
many  cases  be  refused,  or  at  least  he  will  drink  but  sparingly. 
The  danger  is  not  in  the  "  first  swallow,"  but  in  the  excessive 
quantity  he  will  take  if  not  restrained.  A  recent  writer  has  gone 
so  far  as  to  maintain  that  it  is  just  at  this  time,  when  an  animal  is 
warm  in  all  its  parts  with  an  active  circulation,  that  it  is  best 
able  to  resist  the  chilling  effect  of  a  draught  of  cold  water. 
The  stomach  then  being  empty,  the  fluid  passes  into  the  bowels 
and  is  rapidly  absorbed.  It  is  held  by  the  same  writer  that  the 
most  dangerous  time  to  give  a  horse  a  full  draught  of  cold 
water  is  after  he  has  cooled  down  from  fatiguing  work  and  has 
partaken  of  a  meal ;  the  comparatively  small  stomach  is  replete 
with  energy,  the  circulation  weak,  the  extremities  are  cold,  the 
whole  system  is  languid,  and  not  in  a  state  calculated  to  resist 
the  chill.  There  is  at  least  a  grain  of  truth  in  this  argument, 
but  until  the  doctors  have  agreed,  it  will  be  wiser  to  take  the 
middle  and  give  water  cautiously  to  a  horse  when  he  is  heated. 


104  HORSE  FEEDIN<i. 

Many  people  object  to  hard  water  as  causing  harshness  in  the 
coat,  and  soft  water  is  doubtless  preferable.  Yet  it  is  pointed 
out  that  no  part  of  the  country  produces  finer  horses  than  the 
limestone  states  of  Vermont  and  Kentucky.  Where  rainwater 
is  used,  it  should  be  kept  in  clean  and  well-ventilated  cisterns. 

Marvin  points  out  that  everyone  who  has  had  any  experience 
in  horse-keeping,  well  knows  a  change  in  water  is  generally 
resented  by  the  horse,  and  therefore  the  best  results  in  training 
will  follow  the  use  of  not  only  pure  water  but  the  same  water 
all  the  time  if  possible.  "I  have  observed  that  a  horse  does  the 
best  with  his  home  water.  He  acquires  a  taste  for  it,  and  is 
quick  to  detect  the  taste  in  the  different  water  that  he  is  offered 
away  from  home.  It  may  seem  the  same  to  the  trainer,  may  be 
chemically  the  same,  but  the  horse  will  detect  the  difference. 
This  only  illustrates  one  of  the  thousand  little  influences  that 
may  interfere  with  the  trainer's  work." 


FEEDING   STALLIONS.  105 


CHAPTER  VII. 


Feeding  Stallions. 

Horses  in  the  stud,  like  any  other  horses,  should  be  fed 
with  an  eye  to  their  work.  This  does  not  demand  exceptional 
feeding  so  much  as  intelligent  feeding.  In  other  words,  the 
peculiar  work  of  the  stallion  demands  more  than  ordinary  care 
on  the  part  of  those  in  charge  of  him.  It  is  neither  necessary 
nor  desirable  to  vary  much  his  rations  during  the  breeding 
season  from  those  given  to  him  at  other  times,  or  from  those 
given  to  the  other  horses  in  the  stable,  but  as  it  is  peculiarly 
essential  that  he  should  be  both  well  and  strong,  the  eftect  of 
his  diet  must  be  more  carefully  watched.  At  such  a  time  the 
whole  object  of  feeding  should  be  to  give  strength  and  vitality. 
So  the  food  should  be  of  the  muscle-making  rather  than  the 
fattening  variety.  Protein  is  wanted  rather  than  carbohy- 
drates. 

Therefore  as  a  rule  feed  oats,  and  not  corn  ;  bran  plentifully* 
oil-meal  rarely,  if  at  all.  The  stallion  should  have  plenty  of 
hay.  Avoid  over-feeding,  which  will  make  him  plethoric  and 
sluggish.  Never  give  him  more  than  he  will  eat  up  clean  with 
a  relish.  Give  him  grass  or  some  green  food  when  It  can  be 
had ;  otherwise  use  carrots  with  an  unsparing  hand.  Horses, 
ike  men,  enjoy  an  occasional  alteration  of  diet,  and  in  modera- 
ion  it  is  conducive  to  health :  thus,  a  little  sound  dry  corn  now 
and  then  in  time  of  service  or  hard  training  is  a  good  thing ;  a 
bundle  or  so  of  nicely  harvested  sheaf  oats,  as  a  substitute  for 
hay ;  a  few  clean  blades  of  corn  fodder,  and  once  or  twice  a 
week  —  of  tener  is  too  relaxing  —  a  scalded  mash  with  a  hand- 
ful of  oil  meal  in  it  is  beneficial  in  every  way. 

Professor  Stewart  thinks  that  grain,  especially  when  fed 
alone,*should  always  be  fed  dry,  so  as  to  cause  a  greater  flow 
of  saliva  in  its  mastication,  and  as  a  stallion  in  full  service  is 
always  fed  liberally  with  grain,  it  is  not  safe  nor  economical  to 
feed  it  without  mixing  with  a  portion  of  cut  hay. 


106  HORSE  FEEDING. 

laboo  the  idea  that  feeding  some  drug  or  nostrum  will  in- 
crease the  ability  of  a  horse  to  get  foals.  Anything  that  adds 
to  his  health,  strength  and  vigor  will  increase  his  virility 
or  sexual  power,  simply  because  the  sexual  organs  will 
share  the  general  tone  of  the  system,  while,  on  the  contrary, 
whatever  tends  to  impair  the  health  o*  lessen  the  general 
vigor  of  the  system,  will  weaken  the  sexual  org  ins.  The 
only  medicines  to  be  given  are  those  that  may  be  necessary 
to  cure  indigestion,  for  no  stallion  with  his  digestion  out  of 
order  will  be  a  sure  foal-getter.  What  can  be  accomplished  by 
care  in  this  matter  is  shown  by  the  experience  of  George  S. 
Hall,  of  Frederickton,  O.  He  says  that  when  he  bought  Mo- 
hawk, Jr.,  the  horse's  digestive  organs  were  in  bad  condition^ 
and  he  was  subject  to  spasmodic  colic.  "  I  first  fed  him  on 
ground  oats,"  says  Mr.  Hall,  *•  but  soon  found  something  else- 
was  needed.  I  mixed  one  pint  of  wheat  flour,  once  a  day,  ia 
one  gallon  of  ground  oats ;  this  helped  the  cause  but  still  hfr 
scoured  too  much.  I  increased  the  pint  of  flour  to  twice  a  day 
— ^^ could  see  that  it  continued  to  help,  but  didn't  stop  the  scour- 
ing entirely,  so  I  put  one  pint  of  the  flour  in  one  gallon  of  oats 
three  times  a  day.  This  method  stopped  the  scours  for  about  | 
three  weeks,  when  he  was  as  bad  as  ever.  ji 

''  I  concluded  he  wanted  something  to  make  digestion  easier,  i 
so  I  put  one  tablespoonf  ul  of  flaxseed  meal  in  every  feed.  There  j 
appeared  to  be  too  much  gas  on  his  stomach ;  to  remedy  that  I  || 
tried  feeding  one  teaspoonf ul  of  saleratus  every  evening.  I  jj 
mixed  one  gallon  of  fine  ground  oats  with  one  pint  of  wheat  '! 
flour,  one  heaping  tablespoonful  of  flaxseed  meal,  and  one  tea-  |: 
spoonful  of  saleratus ;  these  I  mixed  with  one  pint  of  boiling:  j' 
water.  I  fed  him  the  same  in  the  morning,  except  I  kept  out  j! 
the  saleratus,  and  added  one  tablespoonful  of  salt.  At  noon  1  jl 
fed  him  the  ground  oats,  flaxseed  and  flour.  I  fed  him  clover  j 
hay ;  it  is  softer  and  more  easily  digested.  i 

"  He  improved  every  day,  and  is  now  the  surest  stallion  in  | 
Ohio.  He  had  109  patrons  last  season  and  got  80  colts,  ^e  has  | 
had  125  patrons  this  season,  and  I  am  confident  nearly  100  are  'j 
in  foal.  He  is  fat  and  remarkably  vigorous.  His  digestive] 
organs  have  been  all  right  ever  since  I  began  feeding  the  in-  ! ' 
gredients  named.    I  venture  to  say  there  is  not  another  stallioa 


FEEDING  STALLIONS.  107 

in  the  world  25  years  old  that  has  had  125  patrons  this  year  and 
got  90  per  cent,  of  them  in  foal." 

Trainer  Mike  Bowerman  tells  as  follows  how  he  treats  Wil- 
ton, 2.49^  :  •'  His  season,  for  the  last  two  years,  has  begun  in 
February.  We  limit  him  to  50  mares,  and  never  serve  any 
mare  after  August.  On  the  first  day  of  September  Wilton's 
shoes  are  taken  off,  he  is  turned  into  the  paddock  and  runs  out 
about  six  hours  every  day  —  three  in  the  morning  and  three  in 
the  evening.  His  feed  is  cut  down  to  six  quarts  of  oats  and 
bran,  with  plenty  of  clean  timothy  hay  each  day,  until  Feb.  1. 
Then  we  increase  it  to  nine  quarts.  We  still  continue  to  let 
him  run  in  the  lot  until  April  1,  then  begin  to  jog  him  from  six 
to  seven  miles  each  day,  with  a  little  more  feed.  We  serve  one 
mare  a  day  only ;  we  never  blanket  him  in  the  stable.  We  have 
a  stall  20x20,  light  and  airy  for  him.  I  can  say  further  that  he 
gets  45  out  of  50  mares  in  foal  with  this  treatment." 


108  HORSE   FEEDING. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Feeding  Brood  Mares. 

When  a  mare  is  to  be  bred,  it  is  wisest  to  make  no  change 
whatever  in  her  food  or  surroundings.  The  breeding  season 
comes  at  just  the  time  of  the  year  when  it  is  natural  to  make 
changes,  and  disregard  of  their  influence  doubtless  causes  many 
instances  of  failure  in  foal-getting.  To  this  fact  may  be  traced 
the  prevalence  of  the  notion  that  green  clover  tends  to  prevent 
conception,  the  truth  probably  being  that  the  clover  does  the 
mischief  not  through  any  inherent  peculiarity  of  its  own,but  as 
any  green  food  just  substituted  for  the  dry  winter  rations  would 
do.  If  the  mare  has  been  running  on  clover  for  any  length  of 
time,  there  is  no  need  of  taking  her  from  it  when  she  is  to  be 
bred.    Indeed  that  would  be  more  likely  to  make  trouble. 

While  in  foal  the  mare  should  be  fed  like  the  stallion  in  the 
stud,  on  the  muscle-making  and  not  the  fattening  foods.  Many 
say  she  should  have  no  corn  whatever  in  any  shape,  but  during 
the  winter  a  little  now  and  then  to  keep  her  warm  seldom  does 
harm.  At  the  approach  of  foaling  time  it  should  be  abandoned 
altogether,  as  its  heating  tendencies  would  then  be  objectiona- 
ble and  it  might  cause  excessive  fever.  Plenty  of  moist  food 
should  be  fed,  roots  of  some  sort,  carrots,  turnips,  beets  or 
potatoes,  grass  when  in  season.  Some  of  the  wisest  breeders 
regard  it  the  proper  time  for  mares  to  bring  forth  their  young 
when  grass  is  to  be  had  in  abundance,  for  no  food  so  fitly  pre- 
pares them  for  the  act. 

The  pregnant  animul  having  to  form  blood  for  herself  and 
fcetus,  therefore  requires  more  food  than  one  not  in  that  condi- 
tion. 

All  foods  that  tend  to  produce  indigestion  are  to  be  carefully 
guarded  against.  Such  are  rank  grass  and  rapid  growing  grass, 
over-ripe,  fibrous  hay  or  straw,  any  food  that  has  been  injured 
and  rendered  musty,  and  food  that  is  smutty  or  ergotised. 


FEEDIXG  BROOD  MARES.  109 

Water  should  never  be  given  the  mare  until  the  chill  is  first 
taken  off.  It  is  dangerous  to  give  a  pregnant  mare  a  large 
drink  of  cold  or  ice  water  :  any  food  or  water  likely  to  cause 
any  disturbance  in  the  digestive  or  other  organs  is  to  be 
shunned.  Among  other  things  oil-cake  is  said  to  be  dangerous 
at  this  time. 

When  foaling  time  is  at  hand,  be  particularly  careful  that  the 
food  is  not  in  the  least  smutty  or  mouldy,  and  that  only  the 
best  of  grain  or  hay  be  fed.  Give  her  plenty  of  pure,  fresh 
drinking  water,  and  of  salt.  A  few  days  before  and  after  foal- 
ing feed  very  light  for  fear  of  scouring  the  colt.  Then  grad- 
ually increase  the  mare's  food  to  about  all  she  will  eat  up  clean. 
Remembering  that  protein  is  the  most  important  constituent  of 
milk,  feed  the  mare  on  oats,  bran,  good  clean  shorts,  carrots, 
etc.,  and  as  soon  as  grass  comes  turn  mare  and  colt  out  in  the 
same  paddock  by  themselves  nights.  Barley  and  the  same  bulk 
of  floe  wheat  bran  mixed  together  will  make  a  very  good  food 
for  brood  mares  for  the  summer,  but  it  should  be  fed  mixed 
with  moistened  cut  hay. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  heat  the  blood  of  the  mare 
while  suckling  a  foal.  Remember,  too,  that  the  recent  exhaus- 
tive investigations  of  milk  have  demonstrated  that  it  has  a  great 
influence  on  whatever  animal  consumes  it,  whether  babe,  calf  or 
colt.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  best  way  to  administer 
medicine  is  through  the  mother,  and  likewise  that  poisons  can 
be  thus  effectively  administered.  Therefore  while  the  colt  is 
sucking,  you  are  feeding  both  mother  and  offspring  with  the 
food  eaten  by  the  mare,  and  as  that  which  her  mature  constitu- 
tion can  stand  may  be  fatal  to  the  delicate  foal,  you  must  not 
content  yourself  with  noticing  the  effect  of  the  food  on  the  par- 
ent only.  Acid  or  fermented  food  of  any  kind,  for  instance, 
may  not  safely  be  fed  to  mares  that  are  giving  milk.  Colts 
have  often  been  known  to  die  because  apples  have  been  fed  to 
the  mothers. 


110  '   HORSE  FEEDING. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


Colt  Feeding. 

No  horse  food  topic  is  more  important  than  that  of  colt  feed- 
ing, none  is  more  discussed,  and  on  none  are  there  more  diverse 
opinions  and  practices.  Yet  if  we  apply  to  it  the  same  reason- 
ing we  use  in  feeding  babes,  the  subject  does  not  seem  very 
complicated  or  abstruse  after  all.  For  instance,  take  the  mat- 
ter of  weaning.  We  know  it  is  better  for  both  babe  and  mother 
that  she  should  nurse  the  child.  It  is  the  same  with  the  mare  i^ 
and  colt.  We  know  further  that  nany  mothers  cannot  give 
their  babies  milk  enough,  and  that  the  natural  food  must  be 
supplemented  or  replaced  by  other  food,  and  that  the  best  sup- 
plement or  substitute  is  other  milk,  notably  that  of  the  cow. 
But  cow's  milk  is  not  in  all  respects  like  human  milk,  nor  is  it 
like  mare's  milk.  Therefore  when  it  is  to  take  the  place  of 
either,  it  is  better  prepared  to  resemble  more  nearly  the  food  it 
replaces.  In  the  case  of  colts  this  is  done  by  skimming  the 
cow's  milk,  for  mare's  milk  contains  no  cream.  It  often  hap- 
pens that  babies  are  fed  artificially  from  the  start,  but  this  sel- 
dom occurs  with  colts.  They  are  rarely  weaned  before  a  month 
old,  and  the  norm  il  lime  for  weaning  is  five  or  six  months  af- 
ter foaling.  Sometimes  before  weaning  takes  place  the  mare's 
milk  is  supplemented  by  cow's  milk,  but  seldom  satisfactorily. 
If  the  mare  does  not  give  milk  enough,  the  general  opinion  is 
in  favor  of  weaning  at  once  and  substituting  cow's.  If,  how-' 
ever,  cow's  milk  is  to  be  added  to  the  colt's  diet  before  wean- ' 
ing,  it  is  wise  at  the  outset  to  dilute  it  by  adding  two  parts  of  ^ 
water  to  one  of  milk,  and  to  this  should  be  added  a  little  sugar. 
Gradually  change  the  proportions  for  a  month  till  no  water  at  all  i 
is  added.  | 

To  be  sure,  the  use  of  cow's  milk  for  colts  either  before  or  • 
after  weaning  has  had  many  critics,  but  the  weight  of  opinion  i 
now  is  in  favor  of  it  as  a  food  both  safe  and  economical.  The  - 
great  trotting-stallion  and  sire  George  Wilkes  was  raised  on  i 


COLT   FEEDING. 


Ill 


cow's  milk.  Belle  Hamlin  had  all  she  wanted  of  it  from  the 
time  she  was  weaned  until  grass  came  next  spring.  "Aurelius" 
argues  strongly  in  favor  of  its  use,  and  says  he  is  satisfied 
irom  his  own  experience  that  every  stock  farm  should  have  a 
number  of  good  milking-cows  as  a  part  of  its  outfit.  This  milk 
should  be  set  in  creamers,  so  that  the  milk  of  the  morning  may 
be  skimmed  at  evening,  and  vice  versa.  The  skim  milk  should  be 
warmed  to  be  lukewarm  before  it  is  given.  The  cream  that  is 
skimmed  off  is  of  no  value  whatever  to  a  growing  colt,  but  on 
the  contrary  is  a  detriment.  Besides,  it  may  be  churned,  or 
sold  in  quart  cans  at  a  price  that  will  go  far  to  pay  for  the  ex- 
pense involved  in  the  keeping  of  cows.  Smith,  Powell  & 
Lamb,  of  Syracuse,  have  a  centrifugal  separator,  and  after  sep- 
arating the  cream  give  the  milk  still  warm  from  the  cows. 
Dudley  Miller  of  Oswego,  a  well  posted  writer  on  horses, 
agrees  with  Smith,  Powell  &  Lamb  in  the  opinion  that  it  would 
pay  a  horse  breeder  to  have  a  herd  of  cows  for  that  purpose, 
and  feed  the  skim  milk,  even  if  he  threw  the  cream  away. 
But,  as  the  cream  may  pay  the  whole  expense,  it  will  be  seen 
at  a  glance  that  this  most  excellent  food  may  be  obtained  at 
practically  no  cost  at  all. 

In  a  recent  colt-feeding  experiment  at  the  Iowa  Station  it 
was  found  that  ''  ten  pounds  of  separated  milk  had  about  the 
same  feeding  value  as  one  pound  of  the  best  grain  mixture,  and 
considering  the  fact  that  the  first  period  covered  two  of  our 
severest  winter  months  (January  and  February),  and  the 
second  occupied  a  time  of  milder  temperature,  it  is  probable 
that  the  milk  had  even  higher  feeding  value  than  the  results 
indicate  in  this  case.  The  results  of  utilizing  separated  milk 
for  feeding  colts  may  be  regarded  as  highly  satisfactory.  Those 
who  have  had  experience  in  the  care  of  imported  stock  of  this 
age  soon  after  reaching  this  country,  after  the  hardship  inci- 
dent to  a  rough  sea  voyage  and  the  changes  met  in  passing 
from  one  continent  to  another,  are  aware  how  difficult  it  is  to 
make  a  satisfactory  improvement  under  these  conditions.  In 
this  case  every  animal  responded  promptly  and  made  uninter- 
rupted progress.  That  the  satisfactory  results  obtained  were 
to  a  considerable  extent  due  to  the  milk  fed  during  the  winter 
is  not  unlikely." 


112  HORSE  FEEDING. 

It  is  probable  that  the  objections  raised  to  xceding  cows'  milk 
have  been  chiefly  due  to  feeding  the  cream.  Mr.  Belmont  gave 
the  whole  milk  of  his  rich  Jerseys  to  his  running  foals  and  they 
did  not  develop  satisfactorily.  Had  he  skimmed  it  first,  the 
result  might  have  been  difierent.  Where  the  deep  setting  sys- 
tem prevails  and  the  skim  milk  is  kept  sweet,  it  is  surely  worth 
a  trial,  but  nothing  that  has  soured  should  ever  be  fed  to  a  colt. 

In  the  Iowa  test  a  change  was  made  from  whole  milk  to  sep- 
arated, and  it  is  worth  noticing  that  the  amount  had  to  be  re- 
duced for  a  day  or  two  to  prevent  scouring,  a  precaution  that 
should  always  be  taken  in  the  use  of  separated  milk. 

It  is  now  common  to  begin  giving  solid  food  to  colts  when 
they  are  two  or  three  months  old  —  in  fact  as  early  as  they  can 
be  induced  to  take  it.  This  is  in  addition  to  the  mare's  milk  or 
cow's  milk,  according  as  the  weaning  is  late  or  early.  The 
usual  way  of  making  a  start  is  to  put  the  mare's  food  low 
where  the  foal  can  get  at  it ;  instinct  or  the  spirit  of  imitation 
will  lead  him  to  take  a  bite.  Oats  and  bran  are  the  usual  foods, 
some  breeders  adding  corn  meal  until  the  colt  is  weaned.  But 
the  corn  is  to  be  used  sparingly  at  all  stages  of  the  colt's 
growth,  and  likewise  any  of  the  fattening  foods.  It  is  bone 
and  muscle  that  the  colt  needs,  and  the  nitrogenous  foods  are 
what  should  be  given  to  him. 

Flaxseed  jelly,  used  judiciously,  will  cause  a  foal  to  grow 
rapidly,  materially  helping  to  keep  the  digestive  organs  in  a 
healthy  condition,  and  giving  a  fine  development  to  the  whole 
form.  It  may  be  made  by  boiling  flaxseed  twenty  minutes  in 
from  six  to  eight  times  its  bulk  of  water,  forming  a  jelly. 
Two  tablespoonfuls  of  it  may  be  mixed  with  a  handful  of  oats 
and  a  handful  of  bran,  or  may  be  stirred  into  a  quart  of  waim 
skim-milk.  Begin  by  giving  it  once  a  day,  and  after  a  week  or 
ten  days,  twice  a  day,  11  a.  m.  and  4  p.  m.  being  as  good  times 
as  any.  After  a  colt  has  learned  to  eat  flaxseed  jelly,  he  is 
usually  fond  of  it,  but  it  may  be  necessary  to  teach  him  first  to 
take  the  oats  and  bran  alone. 

The  use  of  such  an  adjunct  to  the  mother's  food  as  this  is  par- 
ticularly desirable  if  the  mare  is  put  to  work.  At  such  a  time 
a  reasonable  amount  of  reasonable  work  will  not  result  in  seri- 
ous Injury  to  the  colt,  but  if  the  flaxseed  jelly  is  not  given,  lie  • 


COLT  FEEDING.  113 

may  not  grow  as  rapidly  as  he  would  if  the  dam  were  doing 
very  little  work.  While  the  mare  is  in  the  field,  there  is  usually 
no  necessity  of  drawing  any  milk  from  her,  but  when  taken  to 
the  barn  she  should  be  cooled  off  before  allowing  the  foal  to 
suck. 

From  weaning  time  on,  the  question  of  feeding  grain  without 
stint  or  even  liberally  is  a  debatable  one.  Opponents  of  the 
practice  characterize  it  as  a  ''  forcing  process"  and  refer  to  it  as 
''  hot-house  growth,"  while  its  advocates  claim  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  forcing  the  growth  of  a  colt  unnaturally.  They  say 
that  with  colts  as  with  children  the  appetite  is  insatiable,  and 
that  if  exercise  enough  is  provided,  there  is  no  harm  in  giving 
all  that  can  be  eaten.  When  Chimes  was  a  yearling  he  got  15 
quarts  of  oats  daily,  besides  plenty  of  grass  and  hay,  and  he 
ate  his  oats  clean.  According  to  ^r.  Williams,  Axtellas  a  two 
year  old  was  fed  in  proportion  even  more  liberally.  Dr.  J.  W. 
Day,  Dr.  Thomas  S-  Flood,  and  other  successful  colt  handlers 
testify  their  belief  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  "forciag 
colts."  A.  J.  Feek  says,  in  ''  Every  Man  His  Own  Trainer,"  in 
his  opinion  there  is  more  injury  done  weanling  foals  by  not 
feeding  than  by  over-feeding ;  they  should  be  fed  what  good 
hay  they  can  eat  and  from  four  to  six  quarts  of  oats  a  day. 

H.  D.  McKinney,  a  well-known  breeder  of  Janesville,  Wis., 
reports  that  he  has  found  it  advisable  in  raising  his  trotting 
coles  to  feed  them  liberally  and  have  them  looking  well  to  the 
purchaser.  He  gets  them  to  eating  grain  as  early  as  possible. 
In  the  pasture  he  has  an  enclosure  16  feet  square  into  which  the 
youngsters  can  go,  and  he  keeps  a  box  of  oats  and  bran  and 
some  salt  where  they  can  get  at  it  at  all  times.  The  little  fel- 
lows soon  begin  to  nibble  and  before  they  are  four  months  old 
they  can  eat  a  good  deal.  After  being  weaned  he  feeds  them 
at  night  all  they  will  eat  of  steamed  barley  and  bran.  In  the 
morning  they  get  oats  and  in  the  middle  of  the  day  carrots.  If 
the  pasture  is  short  in  the  spring  he  gives  them  the  benefit  of  a 
grain  ration  ;  he  does  not  let  them  shrink.  By  this  system  the 
next  fall  he  has  mature  horses.  Then  he  breaks  them  and  lets 
them  alone  awhile,  afterwards  testing  them  for  speed.  He  be- 
lieves in  always  feeding  liberally.  He  gives  them  all  they  will 
eat  of  barley  and  bran. 


114  HORSE   FEEDING. 

Another  Western  breeder  says  he  feeds  small  rations  five 
times  a  day  for  six  weeks  after  weaning  and  he  always  has 
water  where  the  colts  can  get  it.  Sometimes  he  finds  a  colt  a 
little  stubborn  about  drinking  and  occasionally  in  such  a  case 
he  puts  cow's  milk  in  the  water,  but  ordinarily  after  being  shut 
up  for  twenty-four  hours  the  colt  will  get  thirsty  and  drink. 
At  the  end  of  six  weeks  he  reduces  the  number  of  feeding  times 
to  four,  and  when  the  colt  gets  to  thriving  well  he  drops  down 
to  three.  The  feed  he  uses  depends  much  on  what  has  been 
raised  on  the  farm  that  year.  He  goes  more  by  his  balance 
sheet  than  he  does  by  a  balanced  ration.  He  uses  whatever  he 
can  raise  or  buy  cheap.  He  feeds  crushed  oats,  bran,  oil-cake, 
and  silage  from  which  the  cobs  have  been  removed,  and  gives 
turnips  for  variety. 

At  the  convention  where  these  beliefs  and  practices  were 
given,  another  speaker  said  he  would  feed  colts  all  they  could 
eat  of  oats  until  they  were  turned  out  on  grass.  They  would 
not  fall  back  after  being  turned  out,  and  by  this  system  of  gen- 
erous feeding  he  had  been  able  to  raise  two-year-olds  as  big  as 
three  or  four-year-olds.  Another  has  found  that  colts  thus  fed 
would  fall  away  when  turned  on  grass  and  lose  all  they  had 
gained.  He  did  not  use  grain  with  his  colts,  but  kept  them 
looking  well  on  cornstalks.  He  had  bought  colts  that  had  been 
fed  oats  from  the  first,  but  they  did  not  do  well  for  him.  An- 
other also  had  experienced  the  same  trouble ;  the  colts  did  not 
hold  their  flesh  when  turned  on  grass.  Still  another  was  also 
of  the  opinion  that  colts  ought  not  to  be  fed  heavily. 

John  M.  Stahl,  writing  in  the  National  Stockman,  said:  "  A 
mixture  of  equal  parts  by  measure  of  oats,  wheat  bran,  and 
shelled  corn  I  find  is  the  best  grain  for  colts ;  and  corn  fodder 
may  make  one-third  of  the  rough  feed,  the  other  two-thirds  be- 
ing clover  hay  cut  in  good  season  and  nicely  cured.  Colts 
should  be  liberally  fed,  but  it  is  a  mistake  to  feed  them  largely 
of  grain ;  yet  I  would  give  them  a  little  larger  proportion  of 
grain  than  the  work  horses  during  the  winter.  It  pays  to  push 
colts,  providing  the  pushing  through  the  food  box  and  manger 
be  so  adjusted  that  the  animal  will  not  suffer  from  indigestion. 
Walter  J.  Bennett,  in  a  communication  to  the  New  England 
Homastead,  declares  it  strange  farmers  do  not  see  that  the  first 


•  COLT  FEEDING.  115 

three  years  make  the  framework  of  the  colt.  "  Whether  that 
framework  be  large  or  small  depends  on  two  things,— the  breed 
and  the  feed.  If  the  breed  is  large,  the  colt  when  reared  will 
have  the  large  frame,  but  if  food  of  sufficient  quantity  and 
right  quality  is  withheld,  nature  at  once  begins  to  shrink  the 
frame  to  suit  the  feed.  Hence  to  withhold  food,  in  either  quan 
tity  or  quality,  is  to  undo  all  that  has  been  done  in  the  way  of 
breeding.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  food  has  been  supplied  suffi- 
cient to  carry  out  nature's  idea,  she  goes  on  with  it  and  exe- 
cutes, so  to  speak,  the  original  plan,  and  enlarges  and  improves 
on  it.  The  weanling  colt  should  have  four  quarts  of  oats  every 
day  from  fall  till  May.  The  yearling  should  have  as  much  at 
least,  and  the  two-year  old  more,  if  it  is  desired  to  make  heavy 
weights  and  produce  a  horse  that  will  sell,  and  all  this  in  addi- 
tion to  all  the  hay  and  grass  it  wants  to  eat.  This  is  just  as 
important  in  producing  roadsters  or  drafts.  After  the  frame  is 
made  and  it  is  desired  to  keep  horses  on  the  cheap  plan  and  let 
them  rough  it,  that  can  be  done  with  safety.  The  frame  made, 
they  can  live  ind  prosper  on  hay,  but  if  the  colt  is  treated  thus, 
it  is  at  the  expense  of  future  usefulness." 

These  varying  opinions  show  that  the  question  is  by  no  means 
settled.  Some  points,  however,  are  clear.  It  is  evidently  a 
matter,  primarily,  of  comparative  economy.  Health  is  a  sec- 
ondary consideration,  or  rather  it  is  not  much  affected  one  way 
or  another.  It  is  a  problem  of  growth,  and  whether  it  pays  to 
feed  liberally  for  the  sake  of  early  maturity  and  better  appear- 
ance. Without  doubt,  it  is  poor  economy  to  feed  no  grain  what- 
ever, but  the  proportion  of  grain  to  the  rest  of  the  diet  is  an 
economical  question  that  is  to  be  answered  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. The  New  England  farmer,  for  intance,  whose 
main  crop  is  hay,  will  hardly  profit  much  by  exchanging  all  of 
it  for  Western  oats  to  feed  to  his  colts,  when  he  can  keep  them 
in  fair  condition  on  hay,  grass,  a  few  apples,  potatoes  and  the 
like,  with  some  skim  milk  for  the  weanlings.  In  the  grain  re- 
gions of  the  West,  on  the  other  hand,  the  natural  and  economi- 
cal colt  food  would  be  oats  and  bran, 

The  actual  results  of  the  two  plans  of  feeding  are  shown  by 
experiment  conducted  by  Henry  C.  Wallace  of  Iowa,  tried  on 
four  colts,  foaled  in  May,  1888,  out  of  low  grade  draft  mares 


116  HORSE  FEEDING. 

and  out  of  imported  percherons.  They  were  allowed  plenty  of 
oats  till  November,  when  they  were  weaned.  After  weaning 
two  of  them  were  turned  into  a  field  of  160  acres,  containing 
second  growth  clover,  corn-stalks,  oat  stubble,  etc.  They 
stayed  in  this  field  with  a  number  of  other  horses  until  next 
spring,  receiving  no  grain  and  no  hay,  except  at  times  when 
the  snow  was  too  deep  to  enable  them  to  reach  other  feed.  The 
only  shelter  was  that  afforded  by  the  two  straw  stacks.  In 
April,  1889,  these  two  colts  were  put  in  the  stable  and  fed  a 
little  grain  and  hay  for  twoor  three  weeks.  Early  in  May  they 
were  turned  out  on  wild  pasture,  staying  there  until  fall,  when 
they  were  again  turned  in  the  clover  and  stalk-field,  and  received 
the  same  treatment  as  was  given  during  the  previoas  winter. 
In  April,  1890,  they  were  fed  a  little  grain  and  hay  as  before. 
In  May  they  were  turned  into  wild  pasture  and  received  a  small 
amount  of  hay.  Early  m  November  they  were  weighed,  and 
the  team  weighed  2,725  pounds. 

The  two  other  colts  were  treated  somewhat  differently. 
After  weaning,  the  feed  of  oats  was  continued,  Ihe  colts  being 
stabled  at  night  and  receiving  oats  and  tame  hay  night  and 
morning.  Late  in  December  a  small  amount  of  corn  was  added 
to  the  daily  feed.  During  the  day  they  ran  in  a  blue  grass  and 
wild-grass  pasture.  In  November  the  grain  ration  was  again 
given  and  continued  through  the  winter  as  before,  the  team  be- 
ing turned  into  pasture  early  in  May.  They  ran  in  the  blue 
grass  pasture  until  November,  1890,  when  they  were  weighed. 
The  team  weighed  3,050,  being  then  thirty  months  old,  the 
same  age  as  the  other  team  when  it  was  weighed.  The  team 
fed  again  ate  altogether,  not  counting  feed  before  weaning,  be- 
tween 128  and  130  bushels  of  oats  and  35  bushels  of  corn,  the 
feed  bill  amounting  to  about  $30.  The  other  team  had  about  25 
bushels  of  corn  and  oats,  worth  between  $4.50  and  $5.  The 
weight  alone  was  not  all  the  difference  made  by  the  feed.  While 
all  the  colts  kept  in  nice  smooth  flesh  all  the  time,  there  was  a 
marked  difference  in  the  development  of  the  two  teams  irrespec- 
tive of  weight.  The  team  fed  grain  broadened  out  proportion- 
ately at  all  points  and  showed  that  symmetrical  development  so 
pleasing  to  the  eye  of  the  stockman  in  whatever  animal  it  may 
be  found.    While  the  colts  that  * 'rough  it"  were  not  by  any 


COLT  FEEDING.  if? 

means  stunted,  yet  in  looking  at  them  one  felt  that  there  was 
something  lacking.  They  kept  in  good  flesh  but  there  was 
more  middle  than  is  usually  liked  in  a  horse  and  too  much  taper 
at  the  ends  —  too  much  leg. 

The  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter  may  be  summed  up  with 
the  advice,  "  Feed  as  much  grain  as  you  can  afford."  Mr. 
Wallace's  grain  bll  for  his  best  fed  pair  was  only  $35, — surely 
not  ruinous, — but  that  is  a  good  deal  different  from  what  A.  T. 
Maxim  figured  it  would  cost  a  New  England  farmer  to  raise  a 
pair  of  grain-fed  colts,  and  as  Mr.  Maxim  was  a  New  England 
farmer  himself,  and  a  brainy  one  too,  his  judgment  and  expe- 
ience  on  this  point  are  worth  noting.  He  supposed  two  mares 
are  bred  to  a  well-bred  stallion  at  a  service  fee  of  $25  for  each 
The  owner,  presumed  to  be  a  Maine  farmer,  will  make  the 
mares  work  enough  to  pay  their  keep,  so  the  cost  of  the  two 
foals  at  weaning  time  may  be  reckoned  at  $50.  Then  if  the 
owner  feeds  them  after  the  approved  method,  which  is  to  keep 
them  growing  to  their  greatest  capacity  and  looking  smooth 
and  nice  all  the  time,  Mr.  Maxim  figured  it  will  take  eight 
quarts  of  oats  a  day  for  each  one  for  the  first  year  to  do  this» 
or  about  150  bushels  for  the  year  at  a  cost  of  about  $60.  After 
the  first  year  it  may  not  take  as  much  grain  to  keep  them  in  first- 
class  shape.  But  the  cash  cost  of  the  grain,  enough  to  keep 
them  up  to  the  standard  condition  for  the  next  three  years,  can- 
not be  estimated  at  less  than  $50  a  year.  And  for  most  New 
England  farmers  this  means  paying  out  that  amount  of  cash^ 
as  but  few  of  them  raise  their  own  grain,  so  that  the  two  colts 
at  four  years  of  age  will  have  cosft  in  money  paid  out  $260 ;  and 
if  at  that  age  they  are  sold  for  $400,  the  breeder  is  left  $140  as 
a  recompense  for  the  hay  rnd  grass  that  the  colts  have  con- 
sumed during  the  four  years  of  their  existence,  and  also  for  the 
time  and  care  that  has  been  bestowed  on  them.  It  may  be  said 
that  colts  brought  up  in  that  way  will  sell  for  more  than  $200 
apiece.  True  some  of  them  will,  but  then  again  others  will  not 
gell  for  more  than  $150. 

If  the  cost  is  as  high  in  New  England  as  Mr.  Maxim  thus  es- 
timated, it  is  clear  that  heavy  grain-feeding  may  be  allowable 
for  the  owner  of  a  single  colt,  or  for  the  owner  of  a  large  breed- 
ing establishment  with  capital  behind  it ;  but  yet  be  out  of  the 


118  HORSE  FEEDING. 

question  for  the  average  farmer  raising  a  few  horses  for 
market. 

It  turns  out,  then,  to  be  in  the  long  run  more  a  matter  of  cap- 
ital than  of  economy.  And  right  here  it  will  be  well  to  state 
that  it  costs  a  little  more,  pound  for  pound,  to  produce  a  good 
horse  than  a  good  steer.  Any  horse  that  is  worth  raising  will 
bring  at  least  ten  cents  a  pound,  and  the  colts  Mr.  Maxim  ar- 
gued about  he  supposed  will  sell  for  20  cents  a  pound.  The 
jiteer  sells  for  two  or  three  cents.  E.  W.  Stewart  gives  an  ac- 
<3ount  of  feeding  three  colts  whose  gain  was  in  round  numbers 
two  pounds  each  daily,  which  was  as  economically  made  as  that 
of  steers.  Boussingault,  of  France,  fed  several  colts  on 
weighed  rations.  Three  weighing  1,106  pounds,  ate  19.8  pounds 
of  hay  and  7  pounds  of  oats.  This  was  in  the  equivalent  of 
bay  2.6  per  cent,  of  live  weight  daily,  and  gave  a  growth  of  1.2 
pounds  daily,  as  good  as  an  equal  amount  of  hay  would  make 
on  steers.  Prof.  J.  W.  Sanborn,  however,  has  made  some  tests 
that  led  him  to  think  the  horse  will  not  make  as  effective  use 
of  coarse  foods  as  will  the  steer.  These  foods  cost  something 
more  a  pound  of  digestible  matter  than  does  hay,  so  that  it  is 
probable  horse  flesh  costs  slightly  more  than  steer  flesh,  yet 
not  enough  more  to  cut  any  figure  when  the  relative  values  of 
the  growths  are  considered. 

Whenever  capital  permits,  then,  feed  grain  to  the  colts.  Oats 
a,re  the  favorite  variety,  but  they  are  not  to  be  used  alone. 
There  is  no  single  colt-food  any  more  than  there  is  any  single 
boy-food.  Variety  is  even  more  important  to  growing  than  to 
mature  horses,  and  it  is  never  unimportant.  It  is  believed,  in- 
deed, that  a  mixture  of  other  grains  is  preferable  to  oats  alone. 
That  would  seem  to  be  indicated  by  the  results  of  tests  at  the 
Maine  Experiment  Station,  one  in  1890,  when  oats  were  com- 
pared with  a  mixture  of  peas  and  wheat  middlings,  the  other 
in  1891,  when  the  comparason  was  with  gluten  meal,  linseed 
meal,  and  middlings. 

The  outcome  of  the  experiment  in  1890  was,  that  oats  pro- 
duced less  growth  than  an  equal  weight  of  a  mixture  of  peas 
and  middlings,  the  relation  of  growth  being  as  100  to  111. 
The  fact  that  in  this  experiment  peas  were  used  as  a  part  of  the 
grain  ration,  a  food  that  in  the  market  is  comparatively  costly, 


COLT  FEEDING.  119? 

seemed  to  be  a  good  reason  for  repeating  the  experiment  with 
commercial  foods  that  are  more  common, bear  a  less  price,  and 
are  comparatively  nitrogenous  in  character. 

In  the  second  experiment,  which  was  made  in  the  spring  of 

1891,  two  colts  were  used.     No.  1  was  a  grade  Percheron  filly 

eleven  months  old,  and  No.  2  was  a  grade  Percheron  gelding 

eleven  months  old. 

They  were  fed  through  two  perioes  on  the  following  rations : 

10  lbs.  hay 
f  Colt 

\  (6  lbs.  grain  mixture 

Period  1     /  f  10  lbs.  hay 


Colt  2 


{ 


lbs.  grain  mixture 
10  lbs.  hay 
r  Colt 

\  (7  lbs.  oats 

Period  2      f  f  10  lbs.  hay 

t  Colt  2     ^ 

[  6  lbs.  oats 
The  grain  mixture  consisted  of  middlings,  gluten  meal  and 
linseed  meal  compounded  in  the  ratio  of  60,  35  and  15.  The  aver- 
age daily  cost  of  the  ration  in  Period  1  was  about  12  cents,  and 
in  Period  2  about  14  cents,  a  difference  of  two  cents  a  day  for 
each  animal. 

The  feeding  began  March  12,  and  the  animals  were  first 
weighed  March  17  and  18.  Period  1  continued  43  days,  and 
Period  2,  41  days. 

The  colts  were  tied  in  stalls  and  were  given  free  exercise  in  a 
large  yard  during  all  pleasant  weather.     So  far  as  could  be  de- 
termined, no  unfavorable  conditions  entered  the  experiment. 
The  results  are  stated  as  follows  : 

Colt  No.  1    Colt  No.  2 
Weight  of  colts  at  end  of  Period  1        776  lbs.  652  lbs. 

Weight  of  colts  at  beg'ng  of  Period  1  711  lbs.  602  lbs. 

Gain  in  weight  in  43  days  65  lbs.  50  lbs. 

Daily  gain  on  mixed  grains                   1.51  lbs.  1.16  lbs» 

Weight  of  colts  at  end  of  Period  2  794  lbs.  690  lbs. 

Weight  of  colts  at  beg'ng  of  Period  2  776  lbs.  652  lbs. 

Gain  in  weight  in  41  days  18  lbs.  38  lbs. 

Daily  gain  on  oats  .43  lbs.  .93  lbs. 


120 


HORSE  FEEDING. 


These  figures,  however,  do  not  prove  that  oats  themselves 
are  poor  food  so  much  as  they  prove  it  to  be  unwise  to  let  the 
colts  have  for  grain  oats  only.  It  will  take  other  tests,  and 
thorough  ones  too,  with  a  grain  mixture  containing  oats  against 
one  without  oats,  to  convince  most  breeders  that  oats  are  not 
desirable  as  a  part  of  the  ration. 

One  of  the  oat  mixtures  highly  commended  consists  of  equal 
parts  of  oats  and  wheat  bran,  with  about  one-third  their  weight 
of  corn. 

Professor  Henry  suggests  that  if  clover  hay  and  oat  straw  are 
available,  the  following  ration,  (based  on  1,000  lbs.  weight  of 
animal,  and  to  be  reduced  according  to  size,)  might  be  tried 
to  advantage:  5  lbs.  corn;  5  lbs.  oats;  2  lbs.  oil-meal;  10  lbs. 
clover  hay ;  10  lbs.  straw.  Corn  stover  may  be  substituted  in 
part  for  the  clover  hay  and  straw. 

Another  writer  says:  ''There  is  a  prevailing  opinion  that 
clover  hay  is  not  fit  to  feed  a  horse  at  all.  While  I  would  not 
feed  a  grown  road  or  track  horse  clover,  I  would  feed  no  other 
when  the  same  animal  is  young.  If  any  who  read  this  are 
sceptical,  let  them  test  it  and  see.  Feed  one  colt  timothy,  an- 
other clover,  or  feed  the  same  one  each  kind  of  hay  at  different 
times.  Then  throw  out  the  manure  where  the  rain  can  fall  on 
it  and  as  it  washes  away  the  digested  portion,  you  will  be  sur- 
prised to  see  how  completely  the  clover  is  digested  and  how  en- 
tirely undigested  is  the  timothy." 

Xnother  writer  advises  the  following  combination  for  colts 
seven  months  old  or  more :  4  lbs.  cut  clover  hay ;  1  lb.  ground 
oats ;  3  lbs.  fine  wheat  bran ;  %  lb.  linseed  meal.  Let  the  cut 
clover  hay  be  slightly  moistened,  so  that  the  ground  feed  will 
adhere  to  it ;  mix  it  all  together  and  give  in  two  feeds,  morning 
and  evening,  giving  the  colts  the  run  of  the  yard  in  pleasant 
weather.  Ihis  writer  believes  the  most  important  food  for  the 
growth  and  even  development  of  colts  is  clover,  hay  or  wheat 
bran.  "  Clover  hay  can  usually  be  obtained  as  cheaply  as  tim- 
othy, and  in  many  places  at  less  cost.  Good  clover  hay  con- 
tains double  the  muscle-forming  matter  of  timothy.  Wheat 
bran  is  comparatively  rich  in  muscle-forming  matter,  and  its 
ash  is  rich  in  phosophate  of  lime  to  grow  good  solid  bones." 

There  is,  nevertheless,  a  great  difference  of  opinion  in  regard 


COLT  FEEDING.  121 

to  the  colt  feeding  value  of  wheat  bran.  Some  have  an  idea 
that  it  has  a  tendency  to  produce  colic.  Others  claim  that  it  is 
a  fruitful  cause  of  worms.  Most  Northern  breeders,  however,, 
regard  it  a  profitable  food  in  winter.  While  supplying  the  ma- 
terial for  making  bone,  it  also  aids  in  keeping  the  bowels  from 
becoming  constipated,  a  matter  that  should  be  kept  constantly 
in  mind.  If  bran  or  oil-meal  is  not  used  to  avoid  the  risk  of 
stoppage,  some  moist  food  should  be  supplied,  and  this  is  in- 
deed a  good  thing  under  almost  any  circumstances.  Sweet 
apples  are  almost  as  good  as  grass  for  colts.  Carrots  and  other 
roots  are  a  great  aid,  and  even  potatoes  are  of  much  benefit. 
Sugar  both  prevents  stoppage  and  improves  the  appearance  of 
the  colt.  The  way  it  is  used  is  to  dissolve  the  sugar  in  water 
and  pour  it  on  the  chaff  or  cut  hay,  taking  care  that  the  food  is 
well  mixed,  and  in  a  day  or  two  the  colt  will  be  found  licking 
the  sides  of  the  mangers  long  after  the  last  morsel  of  chaflf  has 
been  eaten. 

Diarrhoea  is  as  dangerous  as  constipation,  and  the  two  often 
bear  the  relation  of  cause  and  efiect,  but  more  commonly  in  the 
first  few  months  of  the  colt's  life.  Prevent  or  relieve  constipa- 
tion, and  you  remove  one  fertile  source  of  diarrhoea  in  foals. 
Another  cause  not  rare  is  the  eating  of  hay,  straw,  etc.,  whea 
the  foal  has  not  yet  the  necessary  teeth  for  masticating  such 
food,  and  the  stomach  and  bowels  are  not  enough  developed  for 
digestion.  In  foals  that,have  died  of  diarrhoea  large  accumula- 
tions of  unchewed  hay  are  sometimes  found  wadded  in  the 
stomach,  while  in  other  cases  the  discharges  are  freely  mixed 
with  broken,  undigested  straws,  which  act  as  a  serious  irrita- 
tion. The  eating  by  the  foal  of  hay,  straw,  and  rubbish  should, 
be  prevented  by  placing  him  in  a  clean  pasture,  where  such 
material  is  not  available,  or  if  he  is  kept  in  the  stable  or  barn- 
yard, by  muzzling  and  thus  confining  him  strictly  to  a  moder- 
ate allowance  of  his  mother's  milk. 

This  milk,  though,  is  itself  a  common  cause  of  diarrhoea. 
Sometimes  the  foal  takes  too  much  of  it,  which  can  be  prevent- 
ed by  partly  milking  the  mare  at  the  right  times.  Sometimes  al- 
lowing the  foal  free  access  to  his  mother  after  he  has  been  kept 
from  her  till  very  hungry,  brings  on  the  disease.  More  often 
it  is  caused  by  milk  that  is  unhealthy,  either  from  theill-health , 


122  HORSE  FEEDING. 

improper  feeding,  or  over-heating  of  the  dam.  Milk  is  a  secre- 
tion that  is  affected  in  a  remarkable  degree  by  the  health  of  the 
mother.  Food  and  water  exercise  a  material  influence  on  the 
-quality  of  the  fluid,  often  acting  in  a  way  that  is  not  under- 
;Stood,  causing  changes  neither  the  chemist  nor  the  microscopist 
•can  define. 

Some  of  the  experiments  carried  on  some  years  ago  in  France 
led  to  the  conclusion  that  certain  grains^iven  to  cows  produced 
tnilk  which  was  unfit  for  infants,  and  the  final  result  of  the  in- 
quiry was  to  show  that  the  child  was  not  merely  the  most  sen- 
sitive test  for  milk  derived  from  cows  fed  on  brewer's  grains, 
but  was  in  fact  the  only  test.  The  ^ost  careful  analysis  did 
not  reveal  any  ingredient  that  could  be  referred  to  as  the  cause 
•of  the  indigestible  character  of  the  fluid. 

Therefore  if  a  foal  suffers  from  diarrhoea  and  no  apparent 
cause  exists,  try  changing  the  mare's  food,  even  if  she  appears 
in  perfect  health. 

There  is  some  diflSculty  in  treating  cases  of  indigestion  in 
very  young  animals,  which  readily  succumb  to  continuous  pain. 
Sedative  enemas  are  safe  and  effective  in  cases  of  colic,  as  they 
relieve  pain  and  afford  time  for  other  remedies  to  act.  A  dose 
of  castor  oil  (2  to  6  ounces  according  to  age)  may  be  given 
At  once,  to  be  followed  by  an  enema  of  warm  water,  containing 
two  drachms  to  one-half  ounce  of  laudanum,  or,  if  no  means  of 
giving  an  enema  are  at  hand,  one  or  two  ounces  of  ordinary 
chalk  mixture  may  be  given.  If  the  pain  continues,  flannels 
wrung  out  of  hot  water  may  be  applied  to  the  abdomen  until 
the  pain  is  relieved. 

All  through  the  period  of  colthood  the  amount  of  food  should 
foe  carefully  looked  to,  as  any  food  in  excess  of  the  amount 
digested  is  not  only  wasted  but  also  is  an  injury,  promoting  in- 
digestion, colic,  aud  worms. 

A  good  magnifying  glass  will  by  an  examination  of  the  drop- 
pings, show  if  the  grain  is  all  assimulated  or  not.  You  can 
keep  the  colt  in  good  health.and  fine  condition  with  ii  little  care, 
and  not  be  crowding  him  with  grain  and  then  condition  pow- 
ders to  try  to  counteract  the  over  feeding. 

After  he  has  been  broken,  never  be  afraid  to  give  a  colt  a 
liorse's  ration  if  you  make  him  do  a  horse's  work. 


COLT  FEEDING. 


123J 


Marvin,  who  made  such  a  success  at  Palo  Alto  with  Sunol 
and  other  fast  ones,  says  in  his  book  on  "Training  the  Trotter"  i 
"As  we  are  now  working  our  colt  the  reader  may  properly  be 
reminded  that  it  is  important  to  see  that  the  youngster  is  kept 
strong  and  stout.  A  good  diet  at  this  stage  is,  besides  the  usual 
hay,  ground  oats  for  the  morning  meal,  and  at  night  a  dish  of 
bran  steamed,  the  right  proportion  being  about  three  parts  of 
oats  to  one  of  barley.  Give  the  colts  all  they  will  eat  up  clean. 
A  colt  cannot  get  too  fat  before  he  is  two  years  old.  Between 
his  growth  and  his  work  all  he  can  eat  will  be  assimilated. 
The  rule  is  that  colts  go  back  in  condition  after  weaning.  This 
is  not  as  it  should  be,  for  a  colt  that  is  properly  fed  and  cared 
for  will  improve  after  weaning.  The  fact  that  his  growth  is  ar- 
rested  shows  that  after  weaning  he  has  insufficient  or  unsuita- 
ble food,  and  every  breeder  should  be  watchful  at  this  period,, 
for  a  set-back  in  the  first  year  is  never  made  up  for.  Feed  him 
well  and  especially  if  you  are  working  the  colt  see  that  he  i& 
getting  plenty  of  good  food.  You  will  not  hurt  him  by  giving" 
him  too  much  at  this  age,  for  he  will  not  eat  too  much." 

Says  A.  J.  Feek,  speaking  of  how  to  develop  a  two-year-old  r 
"As  you  increase  the  work  increase  the  feed ;  give  soft  feed 
once  a  day— at  night— and  plenty  of  good  timothy  hay,  except 
on  the  morning  of  the  day  you  expect  to  speed  him.  That 
morning  it  would  be  advisable  not  to  fill  his  stomach  with  hay, 
—wait  till  after  he  has  had  his  work.  As  soon  as  grass  makes> 
its  appearance,  give  him  a  bite  every  day,  letting  him  eat  tea 
or  fifteen  minutes  toward  night  after  his  work,  as  many  times 
grass  will  make  a  horse  puff  and  blow  if  he  has  it  before  he  i& 
speeded.  Still  it  is  acknowledged  that  Dr.  Grass  is  many  times 
the  best  veterinary  we  can  employ." 


124  HORSE  FEEDING. 


CHAPTER  X. 
Feeding  Sick  Horses. 

When  a  horse  is  sick,  he  needs  the  food  that  will  nourish  him 
most  and  at  the  same  time  require  the  least  exertion.  More- 
over, it  must  be  food  that  will  encourage  his  appetite,  or  at  any 
rate  not  repel  it.  In  health  he  is  dainty,  and  in  sickness  he  is 
fastidious.  Therefore  be  then  more  careful  than  ever  that  the 
food  is  fresh,  sweet-smelling,  and  wholesome. 

Bran  is  by  all  odds  the  most  favorite  food  for  the  invalid 
horse.  It  acts  as  a  laxative,  is  frequently  tempting  to  the  appe- 
tite, and  is  easy  of  digestion.  There  is  no  part  of  general 
treatment  more  universal  than  offering  this  as  a  change  of  food. 
If  a  horse  is  very  weary,  and  his  powers  of  digestion  are  weak- 
ened in  consequence,  induce  him  to  take  a  warm  bran  mash* 
which  comfortably  distends  the  stomach,  and  satisfies  any  crav- 
ing for  food,  thereby  enabling  him  readily  to  lie  down  and  rest 
his  enfeebled  system,  until  repose  restores  its  wonted  vigor. 
Does  he  show  slight  symptoms  of  cold  or  fever,  a  warm  bran 
mash  is  a  convenient  plan  of  steaming,  and  consequently  sooth- 
ing the  irritable  mucous  membranes  of  the  air  passages ;  it  is 
a  substitute  for  the  more  stimulating  diet  he  is  accustomed  to, 
and  gently  promotes  the  activity  of  the  digestive  apparatus. 
If  he  is  incapacitated  by  lameness,  a  lower  diet  than  that  he 
gets  when  in  full  work  is  judicious,  and  bran  is  selected.  If  it 
is  necessary  to  administer  purgative  medicine,  a  bran  mash  or 
two  renders  the  bowels  more  susceptible  to  its  action,  and  a 
smaller  portion  of  the  drug  is  therefore  required  to  produce  the 
desired  effect,  there  being,  at  the  same  time,  less  risk  of  pain- 
ful spasms  accompanying  its  operation.  Bran  mashes  may  be 
given  hot  or  cold  —  cold  they  are  perhaps  quite  as  grateful  to 
the  horse ;  but  the  nibbling  of  the  hot  mash  in  catarrhal  affec- 
tions is  particularly  beneficial,  from  the  necessary  inhalations 
of  the  steam  arising  therefrom. 


FEEDING  SICK   HORSES  125 

As  in  sickness  the  horse,  like  man,  is  weak,  save  him  the 
work  of  grinding  hard  oats  or  dry  hay.  Crushed  oats  and  bran 
mixed  half  and  half,  make  a  ration  easily  swallowed,  nutritious, 
and  usually  acceptable.  Oatmeal  gruel  is  one  of  the  best  of 
foods  at  such  a  time.  It  should  not  be  forced  on  the  invalid, 
but  a  pail  of  it  should  be  slung  in  his  box,  out  of  which  he  will 
soon  begin  to  drink  if  water  is  denied  him.  It  is  more  often 
badly  than  well  made,  being  too  thin  or  not  boiled  long  enough. 
To  make  it  right  a  pound  of  meal  should  be  put  in  a  gallon  of 
water,  and  the  mixture  be  stirred  steadily  till  it  boils. 

When  oats  are  oflered  and  refused,  many  convalescent  horses 
can  be  coaxed  into  eating  if  one  pint  of  oats  be  mixed  with  one 
pint  of  barley  and  both  steamed  until  the  barley  bursts.  Then 
add  a  handful  of  wheat  bran  and  feed  slightly,  warm. 

Linseed  is  useful.  It  is  nutritious,  and,  from  its  oleaginous 
nature,  soothing  to  the  frequently  irritable  mucous  membrane 
of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  hence  is  to  be  particularly  recom- 
mended in  the  treatment  of  sore  throats ;  nor  is  its  bland  effect 
local  only,  its  more  general  influence  being  particularly  observ- 
able in  affections  of  the  kidneys.  It  may  be' given  either  boiled, 
forming,  when  cool,  a  gelatinous  mass,  and  being  mixed  in  that 
state  with  bran,  or  the  liquid  after  boiling  may  be  offered  as  a 
drink. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  all  food  must  be  taken  by  the 
horse  as  he  desires  it.  In  sickness  more  than  at  any  other 
time  one  realizes  the  force  of  the  old  adage  that  you  may  lead 
ahorse  to  water,  but  you  can't  make  him  drink.  If  he  will 
not  drink  nor  eat  when  he  is  sick,  if  the  most  tempting  viands 
have  no  effect  on  him,  there  is  nothing  to  do  but  wait  his 
pleasure  —  or  rather  his  need.  When  he  has  no  appetite,  the 
conclusion  is  patent  that  his  stomach  is  not  in  the  fit  condition 
to  digest  anything,  and  it  is  then  worse  than  useless  to  try  to 
force  anything  into  it. 

Hay  softened  by  scalding  will  often  be  taken  with  a  relish 
when  refused  before.  Hay  tea  will  sometimes  create  a  desire 
for  food.  It  is  made  by  pouring  water  over  good  hay  in  a 
large  basket,  and  allowing  it  to  stand  until  cool,  then  pouring 
off  the  liquid.  Corn  on  the  cob  is  often  eaten  when  everything 
else  is  refused.     Bread  may  be  tried,  also  apples.      Roots  are 


126  HORSE   FEEDING. 

extremely  useful  at  such  times,  being  both  tempting  and  ben- 
eficial. The  quantity  given  should  be  small,  one  medium-sized 
carrot  cut  lengthways  in  slender  slivers ;  one  small  yellow  tur- 
nip cut  very  fine  in  dice  shaped  pieces ;  three  rpedium  potatoes 
cut  dice  shape ;  and,  if  it  can  be  obtained,  one  or  two  heads  of 
endive.  When  such  unusual  articles  of  food  are  offered,  the 
groom  should  be  cautious  not  to  wash  the  root?,  but  to  rub  ofi* 
any  dust  that  may  adhere  to  the  skin  ;  endive  may  be  washed 
and  shaken  reasonably  dry. 

If  the  animal  can  be  persuaded  to  drink  milk,  that  will  sup- 
port him  for  days.  Some  horses  will  drink  it,  others  will  re- 
fuse it.  Three  or  four  gallons  of  sweet  milk  may  be  given 
during  the  day,  in  which  may  be  stirred  three  or  four  fresh 
eg^s  to  each  gallon  of  milk. 

Bottled  beer  or  bottled  porter  in  cases  of  great  weakness  have 
produced  most  satisfactory  results.  The  beer  or  porter  should 
be  slightly  warmed  and  a  pint  in  one  drink  given  at  short  inter- 
vals. After  the  third  pint  has  been  swallowed  a  perceptible 
gain  in  strength  ought  to  be  manifest ;  five,  or  at  the  most,  six 
pints,  given  within  four  hours,  should  save  a  sinking  horse, 
that  is,  when  exhaustion  is  the  adverse  condition. 

Never  give  a  sick  horse  cold  water. 

In  cases  of  constipation,  if  the  case  is  not  complicated  with 
colicky  symptoms,  a  change  to  light,  sloppy  diet,  linseed  gruel 
or  tea,  with  plenty  of  exercise,  is  all  that  is  required.  Remem- 
ber that  in  adult  horses  this  trouble  is  usually  due  to  long  feed- 
ing on  dry,  innutritions  food,  scanty  water  supply  or  lack  of 
exercise,  and  removal  of  cause  will  remove  the  eflfect.  If  some- 
thing else  has  brought  it  on,  consult  a  veterinarian.  Likewise 
with  diarrhoea,  if  it  is  due  to  faulty  food  or  water,  a  change 
sufiices.  Its  external  causes,  so  to  speak,  are  mouldy  or  musty 
food,  stagnant  water,  being  kept  on  low,  marshy  pastures,  ex- 
posure during  cold  nights,  or  low,  damp  stables  —  in  any  of 
which  cases  it  is  easy  to  discern  and  remove  the  trouble.  As 
with  constipation,  if  other  causes  appear  to  be  at  work,  get 
skilled  advice. 

Feek  says,  speaking  of  a  fast  three-year  old  in  training :  "If 
his  bowels  get  loose,  a  few  handfuls  of  wheat  every  day  would 
check  them,  or  a  few  slices  of  stale  bread  from  your  table  are 


FEEDING  SICK   HORSES.  127 

soothing  and  have  a  tendency  to  regulate  them.  Many  horses 
have  a  natural  looseness  of  the  bowels,  especially  if  they  go 
out  into  a  crowd  wnere  there  is  any  excitement.  If  you  give 
medicine  to  check  the  bowels,  it  is  dangerous.  You  will  also 
be  liable  to  check  his  speed  several  seconds,  as  I  have  seen  occur 
in  a  number  of  cases.  You  will  remember  that  it  is  sometimes 
dangerous  in  the  human  family  also  to  check  a  diarrhoea  too 
soon,  as  it  causes  a  worse  and  sometimes  fatal  sickness.  The 
fact  is,  keep  as  near  nature  as  possible  under  all  circumstances 
and  you  will  succeed  if  success  is  possible." 

For  horses  afflicted  with  heaves,  or  broken  wind,  the  diet 
should  be  confined  to  the  best  of  food  and  the  smallest  quantity. 
A  little  hay  once  a  day  is  enough.  The  animal  should  invari- 
ably be  watered  before  feeding ;  never  directly  after  a  meal.  It 
is  a  good  plan  to  dampen  the  food  slightly  to  lay  the  dust.  Do 
not  work  the  animal  immediately  after  a  meal.  Exertion,  when 
the  stomach  is  full,  invariably  aggravates  the  symptons.  Turn- 
ing on  pasture  gives  relief.  Carrots,  potatoes,  or  turnips, 
chopped  and  mixed  with  oats  or  corn,  are  a  good  diet. 


With  a  trifling  expenditure  of  time  and  money,  an 
old  Harness  can  be  made  to  appear  as  good  as  new 
and  its  durability  greatly  increased  by  using 

Frank  Miller's  Harness  Dressing. 

With  it  a  Harness  can  be  dressed  as  quickly  as  the 
sponge  can  be  passed  over  the  surface  and  in  five  min- 
utes is  ready  for  use. 

For  Harness  that  has  become  hard  and  dry  there 
is  nothing  equal  to 

Frank  Miller's  Harness  Oil 

which  penetrates  the  leather  and  keeps  it  permanently 
soft  and  pliable. 

For  cleaning  Harness  use  only  Soaps  free  from 
rosins  and  excess  of  alkali.      For  this  purpose  our 

Frank  Miller's  Harness  Soap 

is  unequalled. 

For  cleaning,  softening  and  finishing  Harness  and 
Black  Leather  articles  at  a  single  operation, 

Frank  Miller's  Harness  Composition 

is  highly  endorsed  by  many  of  the  largest  users  of  this 
class  of  articles  in  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 

These  preparations  are  conceded  to  be  the  Standard 
and  are  used  by  the  Cavalry  of  the  United  States 
Army,  by  the  various  departmenis  of  the  Government 
where  Harness  is  used,  and  by  Express,  Livery  and 
Private  Stables  everywhere. 

SOLD    BY    HARNESS    DEALERS. 


RECEIVED 
THE  HIGHEST  AWARDS 
and  FOUR  i^EDALS  at 
WORLD'S   FAIR 

Chicago,  1893 


Every  owner  of  Harness 


SHOULD  USE 


FRANK  MILLER'S 

HAEITESS  DB,ESSIN& 

For  Harness,  Buggy  Top,  Saddle,  Fly   Net, 
Travelling  Bag,  Military  Equipments,  Etc. 

GiTM  a  beautiful  finish,  which  will  not  peel  or  crack 
off,  smut  or  crockjby  handling;  does  not  lose  its  lustre 
by  a^;  dust  will  not  stick  to  work  finished  with  it 
Is  HOT  L  VABinsH.  Contains  no  Turpentine,  Benzine, 
Naphtha,  Alcohol,  or  other  injurioas  articles.  It  is 
dimply  a  flniahing  drosaing. 

DIRECTIONS. 

Let  yottr  UaiAer  be  clean  andperfecUy  dry.  Apply  with  a 
clean,  soft  epDn^e  or  brush,  giving  a  quick  eaav  motion,  and 
aUow  the  drwuing  to  dry  nndiatnrbed.  If  a  high  gloss  la  re- 
quired, give  a  aecond  application  after  the  flrct  it  thoroughly 
dry.  ThU  dretting  will  not  work  tcith  gum  Iragacanth,  or  any 
other  mtofur*. 

Keep  the  oao  dowd  tightly  when  not  in  u«e. 

PUT  UP  IN  CA-NS,  KEGS,  AND  BARRELS. 

MANUFACTURED  BY 

THE  FRANK  MILLER  CO 

NEW  YORK- 


50LD  BY  HAFUNESS  AND  SADDLERY  HOUSES. 


